£S 

BY  LH- BAILEY 


SH 
FRUITS 


c:  -\RD 


^ Agrio.Dept. 

LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


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DSPT.  OF  Ax 

DiV.     Of    AGrC  L 


BUSH -FRUITS 


BUSH -FRUITS 


A  HORTICULTURAL  MONOGRAPH  OP 
RASPBERRIES,  BLACKBERRIES,   DEWBERRIES,  CURRANTS 

GOOSEBERRIES,     AND 
OTHER    SHRUB -LIKE    FRUITS 


BY 

FRED    W.    CARD 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Rhode  island  College  of 

Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Horticulturist  to  the  Experiment  Station 
formerly  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  University  of  Nebraska 


FIFTH  EDITION 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE     MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  LTD. 

1909 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 
BY   FRED  W.  CARD 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  October,  1898 

Reprinted  with  corrections  February,  1901 

November,  1903,  and  November,  1907 

July,  1909 


Or  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PREFACE  BY  THE  EDITOR 

IN  a  proposed  series  of  monographs  on  the 
various  types  of  American  fruits,  this  book  is  the 
first.  Its  purpose  is  to  present  both  the  practical 
and  technical  phases  of  all  the  important  questions 
concerned  in  the  cultivation  and  domestication  of 
the  fruits  under  discussion.  It  has  been  the  effort 
to  separate  these  two  classes  of  matter,  so  that  the 
grower  may  go  direct  to  his  subject  without  being 
distracted  by  details  of  history,  botany  or  ento- 
mology ;  and  the  student  and  investigator  may  be 
equally  at  ease  in  rapid  reference  to  the  subjects 
in  which  he  is  primarily  interested.  A  historical 
sketch  is  of  the  greatest  value  as  information  and 
in  giving  the  reader  a  perspective  of  the  subject, 
but  it  is  of  no  direct  importance  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  crop,  and,  therefore,  should  not  form  an 
introduction  to  the  practical  matter,  nor  be  incor- 
porated with  it,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  such 
amalgamation  is  the  custom.  The  practical  matters 
in  this  book  aim  to  begin  where  the  cultivator 
must  begin, — with  the  land  and  the  plant. 

In  this,  as  in  other  volumes  of  the  series  of 
(v) 


201889 


Vi  PREFACE  Bf  THE  EDITOR 

which  it  is  a  part,  the  aim  has  been  to  treat  gen- 
eral truths  and  principles,  rather  than  mere  details 
of  practice.  A  book  cannot  instruct  in  all  the  de- 
tails of  any  rural  business,  because  these  details 
vary  with  the  environment  and  the  personality  of 
the  operator.  The  book  should  attempt,  therefore,  to 
give  such  instruction  as  to  enable  the  reader  to 
think  out  and  to  solve  the  local  problems  for  him- 
self. When  practices  are  described  in  detail,  it  is 
rather  more  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  a  prin- 
ciple than  for  the  giving  of  direct  advice. 

In  this  book  an  eifort  has  been  made  to  dis- 
cuss all  those  small  -  fruits  which  have  many  or 
most  points  in  common.  Therefore,  the  strawberry 
and  cranberry  have  been  omitted,  and  the  term 
bush -fruits,  long  in  use  in  England,  is  employed 
to  designate  the  group.  The  use  of  this  term  will 
go  far  towards  elucidating  the  principles  involved 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  fruits  here  described,  by 
eliminating  unrelated  topics ;  for  the  principles 
which  underlie  the  management  of  the  strawberry 
are  no  more  like  the  principles  underlying  the 
management  of  the  blackberry  than  they  are  like 
those  concerned  in  the  growing  of  the  apple. 

The  domestication  of  the  bush -fruits  is  one  of 
the  most  recent  developments  of  American  horticul- 
ture, and  the  subject  is  all  the  more  interesting 


PREFACE  BY  THE  EDITOR  vil 

because  all  the  important  types,  excepting  the  cur- 
rant, are  evolutions  from  the  species  of  our  own 
woods.  Since  the  enterprise  is  so  new,  the  reader 
must  not  expect  the  advice  which  is  given  for  the 
management  of  the  bush -fruit  plantation  to  be  as 
permanent  and  final  as  that  which  might  be  given 
for  apples  or  pears. 

It  only  remains  to  say  that  this  book  is  an 
extension  of  a  thesis  presented  to  the .  Cornell  Uni- 
versity for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Science  in  Agri- 
culture, and  to  add  that  the  author  was  a  bush- 
fruit  grower  before  he  was  a  university  student  and 
a  teacher. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  ITHACA,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  30.  1898, 


CONTENTS 
PART  I 

GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS 
CHAPTER    I 

PAGES 

INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION 1_42 

The  location,  3— The  land,  4—  Fertilizers,  6— Suggestions  on 
planting,  8— Management  of  the  land,  12— Tillage  tools, 
15— Pruning,  16— Winter  killing,  19— Propagation,  25— 
Thinning  the  fruit,  27- Effect  of  spraying  on  pollination, 
27— Forcing  raspberries  and  blackberries,  28— Suggestions 
on  picking,  29  — Packages  and  marketing,  32— Remarks  on 
crossing  berries,  36. 

PART  II 

THE   BRAMBLES 

CHAPTER    II 

THE  RED  RASPBERRIES 43-60 

Soil,  43-Location,  44- Fertilizers,  45 -Propagation,  45- 
Planting,  46— Pollination,  48— Tillage,  49— Pruning,  49— 
Autumn  fruiting,  52— Harvesting  and  marketing,  53— Uses, 
54— Duration  of  plantations,  55— Hardiness,  57— Yields 
58— Normal  profits,  58— Note  on  the  hybrid  reds,  59. 

CHAPTER    III 

BLACK  RASPBERRIES 61-105 

Soil  for  black-caps,  61— Location,  62— Fertilizers,  63— Propa- 
gation, 65— Planting,  67— Tillage,  69— Pruning,  70- Har- 
vesting, 74— Methods  of  drying,  77  (drying  out  of  doors, 
drying  under  glass,  drying  with  evaporatois)— Marketing, 
82  — The  evaporated  raspberry  industry,  83— Duration  of 
plantations,  99— Clearing  the  ground,  99— Hardiness  of 
black-caps,  100-Yields,  101-Usual  profits,  103. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    IV  PAGES 

THE  BLACKBERRIES 106-131 

Soil,  106— Fertilizers,  107— Propagation  of  the  blackberry, 
108-Planting,  112-Tillage  and  mulching,  115-Pruning, 
117-Harvesting  and  marketing,  119— Uses,  120— Duration 
of  plantations,  123-Killing  the  plants,  124-Hardiness, 
125- Yield,  125-Proflts,  127. 

CHAPTER   V 

THE  DEWBERRIES 132-145 

Soil  for  dewberries,  135- Location,  137- Fertilizers,  138- 
Propagation,  138-Planting,  139-Tillage,  141-Pruning 
and  training,  141  — Harvesting  and  marketing,  143— Dur- 
ation of  plantations,  143— Killing  out  the  patch,  144— 
Hardiness,  144- Yield  of  dewberries,  145— Probable 
profits,  145. 

CHAPTER   VI 

MISCELLANEOUS  BRAMBLES 146-156 

The  oriental  raspberries,  146  (the  mayberry,  the  strawberry- 
raspberry,  the  wineberry,  the  Chinese  raspberry)  — Or- 
namental species,  150  (Rubus  odoratus,  R.  parviflorus, 
JR.  cratcegifolius,  R.  arcticus,  R.  phoenicolasius ,  R.  spec- 
tabilis,  R.  laciniatus,  double  white  and  pink  brambles). 

CHAPTER    VII 

VARIETIES  OF  RASPBERRIES 157-218 

(I)  Black  raspberries,  158— Recommended  varieties  of  black- 
caps, 176— (II)  The  purple-cane  raspberries,  177— Recom- 
mended varieties,  184—  (III)  The  American  red  raspberries, 
184— History  and  future  of  the  red  raspberries,  186— Varie- 
ties, 192— Recommended  varieties,  199— (IV)  The  European 
red  raspberries,  199— Recommended  varieties,  212— (V) 
Unclassified  varieties,  212— Recommended  varieties,  218. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

VARIETIES  OF  BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES 219-250 

A.  The  blackberries:  History  and  future  of  the  blackberry, 
221- (I)  The  long-cluster  blackberries,  226- (II)  The 
short-cluster  blackberries,  232- (III)  The  leafy-cluster 


CONTENTS  Xl 

blackberries,  235- (IV)  The  white  blackberries,  237- (V)      PAGES 
The  loose-cluster  blackberries,  238— (VI)  The  sand  black- 
berry, 240— Recommended  varieties  of  blackberries,  240. 
B.  The  dewberries:     (VII)  The  northern  dewberries,  244- 
(VIII)    The    southern    dewberries,  246— (IX)    The  west- 
ern dewberries,  247— Recommended  varieties   of  dewber- 
ries, 250. 

CHAPTER    IX 

INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  BRAMBLES 251-283 

The  more  important  insects,  252— The   less   prominent  in- 
sects, 274. 

CHAPTER   X 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAMBLES 284-302 

The  important  fungous  diseases,  285— Other  important  dis- 
eases, 292— Less  prominent  diseases,  296. 

CHAPTER   XI 
THE  BOTANY  OF  THE  BRAMBLES 303-336 


PART  III 

THE   GROSELLES 

CHAPTER   XH 

CURRANTS ! 337-356 

Soil  and  location,  339— Fertilizers,  340— Propagation,  341— 
Planting,  344 -Subsequent  tillage,  346- Pruning,  347- 
Gathering  and  marketing,  349— Uses,  351— Duration  of 
plantations,  352 -Hardiness,  353-Yield,  353-Proflts,  354- 
Black  currants,  355. 

CHAPTER   XIII 

GOOSEBERRIES 357-374 

Soil  and  location,  358— Fertilizers,  359— Propagation,  359- 
Planting,  363 -After-treatment,  364 -Pruning,  364 -Gath- 
ering and  marketing,  367— Uses,  368— Duration  of  planta- 
tions, 370 -Hardiness,  371-Yield,  371-Proflts,  372- 
English  gooseberries,  372. 


BUSH-FRUITS 


PAET  I 

GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION 

WHO  does  not  love  the  garden!  It  has  delights  for 
all,  whether  merchant  or  farmer,  matron  or  maiden. 
No  garden  is  complete  without  bush -fruits.  Most 
readers  who  may  consult  this  book  are  doubtless  al- 
ready interested  in  their  cultivation,  and  do  not  need 
to  be  told  of  their  merits.  Yet  there  are  farmers, 
even,  who  say  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  fruit  for  the 
family  than  to  grow  it.  Let  no  one  commit  this  error. 
It  means  that  far  less  will  be  used  than  ought  to  be 
used.  Fruit  is  too  easily  and  cheaply  grown  on  the  farm 
ever  to  be  neglected.  It  will  add  much  to  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  the  place,  promote  the  health  of  its  occu- 
pants and  increase  their  loyalty  and  love  for  the  home. 
The  berries  of  the  hedge-row  and  wood- lot  are  disap- 
pearing ;  time  is  better  spent  elsewhere  than  in  hunt- 
ing for  the  few  that  remain.  Such  fruit  costs  too 
much ;  it  is  purchased  with  something  more  valuable 
than  current  coin. 

A  (1) 


2  BUSH-FRUITS 

Contact  with  nature  affords  a  better  tonic  and  nerv- 
ine than  the  pharmacist  can  compound.  A  vacation 
in  the  country  brings  rest  and  recuperation  to  the 
business  and  professional  man,  but  not  every  one  can 
take  it.  If  he  be  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  a  garden 
it  may  afford  him  a  vacation  for  an  hour  at  any  time. 
In  such  a  garden  bush -fruits  may  reach  their  highest 
perfection.  Every  plant  and  flower  becomes  a  com- 
panion and  a  friend.  Flowers  then  acquire  a  tint  and 
perfume  and  fruits  a  flavor  and  piquancy  which  no 
others  can  equal. 

To  grow  bush -fruits  for  home  use  is  nearly  always 
wise.  To  grow  them  for  market  may  not  be.  Many 
things  must  be  considered,  chief  of  which  are  the  fa- 
cilities for  gathering  and  marketing.  To  grow  berries 
where  pickers  are  not  easily  had  is  a  hazardous  under- 
taking. Even  when  help  seems  abundant  it  may  prove 
insufficient.  Few  people  who  have  not  tried  it  know 
what  it  means  to  pick  berries  all  day  under  a  scorch- 
ing July  sun.  To  do  it  demands  much  perseverance, 
especially  among  those  who  are  unaccustomed  to  out- 
door work. 

A  near-by  market  is  always  preferable,  for  most  ber- 
ries suffer  from  shipment,  though  gooseberries  are  an 
exception.  The  growing  of  raspberries  for  evaporat- 
ing is  open  to  the  farmer,  independent  of  the  prox- 
imity to  pickers  and  markets.  The  farmer  should  also 
study  himself  before  embarking  in  the  commercial 
growing  of  bush-fruits.  Not  all  men  are  adapted  to 
the  business.  A  mistake  in  the  man  is  more  serious 
than  a  mistake  in  the  location  or  the  soil. 


THE  LOCATION  3 

THE  SITE* 

The  site  or  slope  of  the  land  may  greatly  affect  the 
success  of  a  crop.  Most  bush-fruits  thrive  best  in 
mountainous  or  hilly  regions  and  prefer  a  cool  northern 
exposure,  though  this  is  not  imperative.  The  heat  of 
summer  is  more  detrimental  than  the  cold  of  winter, 
except  on  the  northern  limit  of  their  range.  Drought 
is  the  great  enemy  to  be  avoided,  and  a  location  which 
will  in  any  way  help  to  counteract  its  effects  should  be 
sought.  This  is  of  paramount  importance  in  the  South- 
ern states  and  semi -arid  regions  of  the  West.  In  many 
parts  of  these  regions  bush -fruits  do  not  thrive  in  field 
culture.  Blackberries  succeed  better  in  the  far  South 
than  raspberries,  while  red  raspberries  endure  better 
than  blacks.  Neither  currants  nor  gooseberries  succeed. 
On  the  Plains  black -caps  thrive  better  than  either  reds 
or  blackberries.  Good  results  may  also  be  obtained 
from  currants  and  gooseberries  under  favorable  condi- 
tions. Propagation  of  black -caps  is  more  difficult  in 
the  Gulf  states  than  at  the  North  and  can  be  success- 
fully done  only  in  partial  shade. 

Most  bush -fruits  can  be  grown  where  partially 
shaded  by  trees,  though  this  is  seldom  the  best  place 
to  grow  them.  The  danger  from  spring  frosts  is  an 
important  consideration  in  the  choice  of  a  site.  Air- 
drainage  is  as  important  as  soil -drainage.  High  land 


*In  the  following  discussions  of  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  bush-fruit 
plantation  only  general  and  summary  statements  can  be  made.  For  more 
thorough  consideration  of  some  of  these  subjects  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing." 


4  BUSH-FRUITS 

often  escapes  frosts  when  lower  land  suffers,  and  is 
therefore  preferable,  so  far  as  this  influence  is  con- 
cerned. On  the  other  hand  the  soil  of  valleys  often 
retains  moisture  better  than  that  of  hills;  moisture 
being  imperative,  the  valley  lands  are  preferable  in 
this  regard.  In  parts  of  the  country  this  difference  does 
not  hold,  the  soil  of  the  valleys  being  lighter  than  that 
of  the  uplands.  Wind-breaks  are  of  importance  in 
parts  of  the  country  subject  to  hot,  drying  winds  during 
the  summer.  This  is  particularly  true  on  the  Plains; 
the  wind  velocity  is  often  high,  the  humidity  low  and 
the  temperature  great.  This  combination  taxes  the 
powers  of  the  plant  to  its  utmost.  A  wind-break  at  the 
south  and  west  greatly  modifies  the  conditions  and 
reduces  the  subsequent  evaporation,  both  from  soil  and 
plants. 

THE   LAND 

Bush -fruits  are  not  imperious  in  their  soil-demands. 
Land  which  will  produce  good  corn  or  potatoes  will  pro- 
duce bush -fruits.  It  must  not  be  wet  and  heavy  and 
must  not  carry  standing  water  during  any  part  of  the 
year,  yet  it  must  possess  drought -resisting  qualities. 
The  keynote  of  success  with  these  fruits  is  in  being 
able  to  supply  moisture  when  the  fruit  is  growing  and 
ripening.  Irrigation  may  be  employed  with  advantage 
where  conditions  admit,  but  is  often  impracticable. 
Whatever  can  be  done,  therefore,  to  secure  the  same 
results  should  be  done.  First  of  all  the  land  should  be 
deep  and  have  good  texture.  If  not  naturally  so  it  can 
be  improved  by  underdraining,  or  to  some  extent  by  sub- 


THE  LAND   AND   ITS   TREATMENT  5 

soiling.  It  should  contain  an  abundance  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter.  Humus  is  the  great  reservoir  of 
moisture.  A  soil  rich  in  humus  not  only  admits  water 
more  freely,  but  retains  more  of  it  and  gives  it  up  more 
slowly.  Humus  possesses  other  qualities  of  advantage 
in  preventing  the  loss  of  nitrogen  and  in  setting  free 
mineral  constituents  of  the  soil.  It  can  be  obtained  by 
the  addition  of  stable -manure  or  the  plowing  in  of 
green -crops,  but  the  process  must  be  gradual.  To  apply 
large  quantities  of  undecayed  vegetable  matter  at  one 
time  may  injure  rather  than  improve  the  condition. 

Moist,  sandy  and  clay  loams  give  most  universal 
satisfaction.  The  dewberry  will  thrive  on  a  light 
sandy  soil,  followed  in  turn  by  the  red  raspberry  and 
blackberry,  while  a  strong  clay  loam  is  preferable  for 
the  currant  and  gooseberry.  The  stronger  soils  are 
better  adapted  to  varieties  of  moderate  growth,  the 
lighter  soils  to  the  more  rampant  growers. 

Sod  land  should  be  avoided,  even  though  in  excel- 
lent general  condition.  The  sod  renders  it  incon- 
venient to  furrow  and  plant  and  may  cause  the  death 
of  many  plants.  Grass  may  also  become  established 
in  the  rows  and  give  trouble.  Thorough  soil -prepa- 
ration is  imperative  ;  no  amount  of  after  care  can 
atone  for  neglect  in  this.  Land  which  has  been  thor- 
oughly worked  for  one  or  two  seasons  previous  to 
planting  is  to  be  preferred. 

In  parts  of  the  West  where  droughts  are  often  se- 
vere and  where  the  substratum  of  the  soil  is  hard  and 
impervious,  subsoiling  will  often  prove  advantageous. 
It  should  be  done  the  fall  before  planting,  or  even 


6  BUSH-FRUITS 

earlier,  in  order  that  the  loosened  subsoil  may  become 
saturated  with  moisture  and  somewhat  compacted. 
Plantings  immediately  following  spring  subsoiling  may 
suffer  more  from  drought  than  those  on  unsubsoiled 
land,  because  the  recently  loosened  soil  dries  out  more 
rapidly.  For  the  same  reason  fall  plowing  is  to  be 
preferred  in  those  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  soil  at  planting  time  shall  be  moist, 
pliable,  thoroughly  and  deeply  pulverized,  so  that  the 
roots  may  quickly  establish  themselves.  Soil  which  is 
uniformly  fertile  by  previous  culture  and  manuring  is 
much  preferable  to  one  which  has  been  neglected  and 
heavily  fertilized  at  planting  time.  Acidity  of  soil  is 
less  deleterious  with  bush -fruits  than  with  many  other 
crops.  Blackberries  and  black  raspberries  appear  to 
thrive  as  well  in  acid  soils  as  in  others.  Red  rasp- 
berries, currants,  and  gooseberries  are  somewhat  bene- 
fited by  liming  if  the  soil  is  very  acid. 

FERTILIZERS 

Bush -fruits  do  not  demand  heavy  fertilizing.  In- 
stances are  common  where  land  which  has  failed  to 
yield  good  returns  in  farm  crops  has  given  good  yields 
of  bush -fruits  without  fertilizers  of  any  kind.  It  does 
not  follow  that  it  is  best  to  neglect  fertilizing,  but  I 
am  convinced  that  it  is  easy  to  waste  money  in  apply- 
ing plant -food  where  it  may  not  be  needed.  Stable 
manure  is  most  largely  used,  but  is  not  a  well-balanced 
fertilizer.  It  gives  particularly  good  results  with  cur- 
rants and  gooseberries.  Upon  strong  moist  soils  it 


FERTILIZERS  7 

must  be  used  with  caution,  especially  upon  red  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries;  otherwise  it  may  cause  ex- 
cessive growth,  with  consequent  lack  of  hardiness  and 
diminished  fruitfulness.  It  is  best  applied  in  fall  or 
early  winter,  that  it  may  become  available  during  the 
early  part  of  the  growing  season.  If  applied  in  spring 
it  may  cause  a  late  fall  growth,  with  increased  loss 
from  winter -killing. 

Upon  the  grounds  of  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment 
Station,  plots  which  have  received  no  fertilizer  of  any 
sort  since  1890  have  in  some  cases  given  as  good 
yields  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  as  plots  which 
have  been  given  a  good  dressing  of  chemicals  every 
year  during  that  time.  Plots  treated  with  mineral  fer- 
tilizers alone  have,  in  nearly  every  instance,  outyielded 
plots  where  nitrogen  was  used  in  connection  with  them. 
These  results  are  tentative  only,  because  while  the  fer- 
tilizer application  has  been  carried  on  long  enough  to 
give  reliable  results,  only  the  first  season's  yields  of 
bush -fruits  are  available.  The  yields  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  plants  growing  upon  the  plots  are  signifi- 
cant. The  soil  is  a  light,  sandy  loam,  underlaid  with 
a  gravelly  subsoil,  and  is  naturally  unproductive. 

All  growers  agree  that  potash  is  the  most  impor- 
tant element  of  fertility  in  fruit-growing.  With  the 
tree -fruits  it  often  heightens  color;  whether  it  is  as  im- 
portant with  bush -fruits  is  not  fully  determined.  From 
present  knowledge  it  seems  probable  that  100  pounds 
of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre,  annually,  will  furnish  an 
abundance  of  potash  upon  most  soils.  If  leguminous 
cover -crops  are  employed  they  will  supply  all  the 


8  BUSH-FRUITS 

nitrogen  needed,  except  under  unusual  conditions. 
When  necessary,  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  125 
pounds  of  dried  blood  per  acre  should  be  sufficient. 
Dried  blood  seems  to  give  good  results  in  Rhode 
Island.  Phosphoric  acid  may  be  supplied  by  thor- 
oughly working  into  the  soil  250  pounds  of  floats, 
which  is  the  name  applied  to  finely  ground  unacidu- 
lated  Carolina  rock,  or  an  equal  quantity  of  ground 
bone.  In  lieu  of  this  preparatory  application  150 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  or  Thomas  slag  may  be 
applied  annually. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON   PLANTING 

Planting  may  be  done  in  spring  or  fall.  In  fall  the 
work  can  be  done  with  less  haste  and  the  ground  need 
be  worked  only  when  it  is  in  proper  condition.  If  a 
mulch  of  manure  or  earth  is  placed  over  the  ground 
the  plant  will  generally  pass  the  winter  safely  and  will 
be  ready  to  begin  growth  at  once  when  spring  opens. 
Unless  spring  planting  is  done  early,  before  growth 
begins,  the  plant  will  receive  a  check  which  will  se- 
riously impede  the  season's  growth.  A  plant  set  in 
early  fall  is  able  to  partially  repair  the  damage  to  its 
root -system  before  the  season  of  growth  the  following 
spring.  Planting  in  early  spring  does  away  with  the 
extra  expense  of  covering  and  uncovering  the  plants 
and  leaves  the  soil  mellow  and  in  good  condition  for 
work  during  the  summer.  It  is  the  best  method  for 
black -caps  and  dewberries,  and  will  generally  be  found 
more  satisfactory  for  other  kinds  if  the  work  is  done 


PLANTING  9 

properly  and  in  season.  Currants  and  gooseberries 
begin  growth  very  early,  hence  special  promptness  is 
needed  when  planting  them  in  spring. 

For  increasing  a  stock  of  red  raspberries  or  black- 
berries on  one's  own  grounds  young  shoots  of  the  pres- 
ent year's  growth  may  be  used  with  excellent  results, 
transplanting  them  like  cabbage -plants,  any  time  after 
they  are  four  inches  high.  If  much  taller  than  this, 
cut  off  the  tops.  They  will  be  well  established  by  fall. 
All  plants,  particularly  the  red  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, should  be  carefully  lifted.  If  carelessly  pulled 
up  the  plant  will  usually  break  at  the  connection  with 
the  root  from  which  it  sprung,  leaving  only  a  straight 
stub,  poorly  equipped  for  growth. 

The  individuality  of  the  parent-plant  is  a  point  de- 
serving of  more  attention  than  it  commonly  receives. 
Different  plants  of  the  same  variety  vary  widely  in  pro- 
ductiveness and  size  of  fruit.  It  is  reasonable  to  ex- 
pect these  differences  to  appear  in  the  offspring. 

The  common  practice  is  to  plant  bush -fruit  in  rows 
six  to  eight  feet  apart,  with  plants  two  to  three  feet 
apart  in  the  rows.  This  is  not  necessarily  the  most  profit- 
able method.  Many  excellent  growers  prefer  to  plant  in 
check -rows,  with  plants  five  to  seven  feet  apart  each 
way,  keeping  them  entirely  in  hills  and  doing  nearly 
all  cultivation  with  a  horse.  This  reduces  the  cost  of 
tillage  and  secures  a  finer  grade  of  fruit,  a  plan  espe- 
cially to  be  considered  when  fruit  is  grown  for  a  dis- 
criminating market.  In  regions  of  deficient  rainfall 
extra  space  must  be  allotted  to  each  plant  in  order  to 
insure  it  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture.  Check-rows 


10  BUSH-FRUITS 

would  seem  to  be  especially  desirable  under  those  con- 
ditions, though  hedge -rows  running  north  and  south, 
or  in  line  with  the  prevailing  winds,  may  assist  in  re- 
ducing evaporation.  On  high-priced  land  in  moist 
climates,  or  under  irrigation,  close  planting  may  give 
better  returns,  though  there  is  greater  danger  from 
fungous  diseases.  The  suckers,  which  spring  up  in 
great  profusion  in  old  plantations  of  red  raspberries 
and  blackberries,  are  more  easily  controlled  by  planting 
in  check-rows.  A  modification  of  the  check -row  sys- 
tem is  often  desirable,  the  plants  being  set  four  feet 
apart  in  the  row  and  lined  both  ways,  so  that  cultiva- 
tion may  progress  in  either  direction  while  the  plants 
are  small  and  when  the  old  canes  are  first  removed 
after  fruiting. 

Planting  methods  are  simple.  The  previous  soil- 
preparation  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  If  that  has 
been  thorough  it  will  be  easy  to  put  the  soil  in  proper 
condition  to  receive  the  plants.  In  this  connection  a 
bit  of  the  author's  experience  may  be  of  interest  as 
a  warning,  not  as  a  guide.  When  a  young  country 
school-teacher,  he  decided  to  plant  an  acre  of  black 
raspberries.  The  plants  were  ordered  and  appeared 
very  early  in  the  spring,  while  the  ground  was  still 
cold  and  wet,  but  what  to  do  with  them  he  did  not 
know,  heeling -in  being  to  him  as  yet  an  unlearned 
mystery.  A  man  was  hired  to  plow  the  ground,  which 
was  too  wet  to  work  and  was  covered  with  a  partial 
sod.  Without  waiting  to  harrow  it  other  men  were  set 
at  work  with  hoes  making  little  holes  and  setting  the 
plants  in  this  most  uncongenial  home.  It  is  needless 


RECEIVING    THE  PLANTS  11 

to  say  that  this  field  yielded  little  profit,  except  in 
experience. 

The  care  of  young  plants  when  received  from  the 
nursery  is  an  important  matter.  If  ordered  from  a  dis- 
tance it  will  seldom  be  convenient  to  plant  them  at 
once.  They  should  be  unpacked  as  soon  as  received, 
the  bunches  loosened  enough  to  bring  all  the  roots  in 
contact  with  earth  when  heeled -in,  which  should  be 
done  on  the  north  side  of  a  building  or  in  a  cool  cellar 
in  moist  earth.  A  shallow  trench  should  be  opened 
with  one  side  somewhat  slanting,  laying  the  plants 
against  this  side  and  covering  the  roots  with  earth, 
which  should  be  closely  pressed  about  them.  Tier  af- 
ter tier  may  be  packed  in  this  way.  Plants  so  treated 
will  remain  in  a  cool  place  with  safety  for  some  time. 
If  dry  when  received  dousing  the  roots  in  water  or  thin 
mud  before  heeling -in  is  advisable.  Even  burying  the 
plants  entirely  in  the  earth  may  assist  them  to  recover. 

When  well  fitted  the  field  should  be  marked  and 
furrows  plowed  the  desired  distance  apart.  If  check- 
rows are  used  the  marking  should  be  done  in  both  di- 
rections, to  facilitate  rapidity  of  planting,  though  fur- 
rows need  be  plowed  but  one  way.  Most  workmen  will 
make  a  straighter  furrow  if  the  land  is  previously 
marked,  though  a  good  driver  will  plow  them  very 
straight  by  using  stakes  and  ranging  with  objects  in 
the  fields  beyond. 

Some  successful  growers  recommend  deep  planting 
for  all  bush-fruits,  urging  that  plants  set  deep  are 
better  able  to  withstand  drought,  and  will  stand  up 
better.  The  plants  are  set  in  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 


12  BUSH-FRUITS 

row,  but  only  moderately  covered,  allowing  the  furrow 
to  be  filled  in  by  subsequent  cultivation,  after  the 
shoots  have  started.  Deep  planting  is  not  always  sat- 
isfactory, especially  with  tips.  If  the  subsoil  is  heavy 
and  hard  the  plants  will  lose  more  than  they  gain. 
Experiments  at  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  gave 
uniformly  better  results  from  shallow  planting  of  black 
raspberries. 

In  mellow  ground  the  plants  are  quickly  set  by 
drawing  the  earth  about  them  with  the  hands  and  firm- 
ing it  with  the  hands  or  feet,  leaving  the  furrow  to  be 
filled  in  with  a  hoe  or  by  subsequent  cultivation.  When 
two  or  three  persons  are  planting  together  one  should 
carry  the  plants  in  water  and  drop  them  just  in  ad- 
vance of  those  who  are  setting.  He  should  never  be 
allowed  to  get  ahead  of  the  planters,  for  every  expo- 
sure to  sun  and  wind,  even  though  brief,  lessens  the 
vitality  of  the  plant.  If  one  person  is  working  alone, 
the  plants  may  be  carried  in  a  pail  containing  some 
water. 

MANAGEMENT   OP   THE   LAND 

Some  return  may  be  obtained  from  the  land  the 
first  year  by  planting  hoed  crops  between  the  rows. 
In  many  cases  nothing  will  be  gained  by  this  practice. 
Under  intensive  culture  it  can  be  done  with  profit,  but 
with  common  farm  methods  what  is  gained  by  the 
catch -crop  is  likely  to  be  more  than  lost  in  diminished 
growth  of  the  fruit -plants. 

Cultivation  during  the  first  year  differs  little  from 
that  of  other  hoed  crops.  Frequent  stirring  of  the 


TILL  A  GE  13 

soil  to  destroy  weeds  and  preserve  a  dust-mulch  upon 
the  surface  is  demanded.  The  grower  cannot  afford  to 
allow  weeds  to  usurp  food  and  moisture  which  belong 
to  the  plants;  neither  can  he  afford  to  allow  the  mois- 
ture to  evaporate  from  the  soil  by  neglecting  to  mulch 
it  with  dust.  As  in  every  horticultural  operation,  the 
better  the  tillage  the  better  the  growth. 

Each  succeeding  spring  tillage  should  begin  early, 
using  any  implement  which  will  loosen  the  soil  thor- 
oughly and  leave  the  ground  level.  The  soil  immedi- 
ately about  the  plants  should  be  loosened  with  a  hoe  or 
rake  so  that  the  whole  surface  may  be  mellow  and  in 
good  tilth.  If  done  early  this  is  not  a  serious  task, 
but  if  neglected  until  the  ground  becomes  hard  and  the 
weeds  have  started  it  is  difficult  and  expensive.  A 
shovel  or  spade  can  sometimes  be  used  with  advantage 
in  first  turning  the  soil.  Some  growers  plow  between 
the  rows  in  spring,  but  this  is  undesirable,  since  it  may 
injure  many  of  the  roots  and  leave  the  land  in  ridges. 
Plowing  is  especially  undesirable  among  currants  and 
gooseberries. 

Most  writers  recommend  that  tillage  should  cease 
by  July  or  August  to  permit  the  plants  to  ripen  their 
wood  before  winter.  Other  men  of  wide  experience, 
whose  opinions  carry  much  weight,  believe  that  tillage 
should  continue  throughout  the  entire  season.  It  is  a 
point  still  open  to  discussion  and  one  upon  which  more 
light  is  needed.  Much  depends  upon  the  locality  and 
the  season.  In  semi -arid  climates,  like  that  of  the 
Plains,  there  is  little  danger  of  inducing  too  great  fall 
growth  by  continuous  tillage.  There  is  more  danger 


14  BUSH-FRUITS 

that  the  plants  may  go  into  winter  quarters  with  a 
deficiency  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  In  Nebraska  con- 
tinuous cultivation  gives  good  results. 

Mulching  to  replace  tillage  is  often  suggested.  In 
the  home -garden  where  tillage  is  often  difficult,  owing 
to  the  smallness  of  the  plots  or  the  inconvenience  of 
getting  at  them  with  a  horse,  mulching  may  be  the  most 
satisfactory,  but  in  field  culture  no  other  mulch  is  so 
practicable  as  that  formed  by  a  layer  of  mellow,  fre- 
quently-stirred soil.  The  chief  objections  to  mulching 
are  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  obtaining  material,  the 
labor  involved  in  applying  it  and  the  fact  that  mulching 
induces  surface  rooting  of  the  plants.  In  tilled  land 
the  roots  are  kept  below  the  part  which  is  stirred  and 
if  neglected  this  part  remains  to  protect  them.  With 
mulching  the  roots  come  close  to  the  surface,  where  they 
are  quickly  injured  if  the  mulch  is  allowed  to  disappear. 

On  very  rich  soils  in  moist  climates  continuous  culti- 
vation may  induce  too  rampant  wood -growth.  Under 
such  conditions  cultivation  is  sometimes  abandoned 
after  the  second  year,  the  ground  being  seeded  to  clover, 
which  is  cut  when  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  and  left  on 
the  ground  for  a  mulch.  A  practice  in  vogue  on  the 
Thayer  farms  in  Wisconsin  is  to  grow  clover  on  other 
land,  to  be  cut  and  spread  along  the  rows,  while  tillage 
is  maintained  in  the  spaces  between. 

Cover-crops  have  not  been  largely  used  among  bush- 
fruits  heretofore,  but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe 
that  they  can  be  employed  with  advantage.  If  legumes 
are  used  all  the  nitrogen  which  is  needed  may  be  thus 
obtained.  If  too  much  results,  non-leguminous  crops 


COVER- CROPS  15 

should  be  substituted.  Where  crimson  clover  thrives  it 
makes  an  excellent  plant  for  this  purpose,  forming  a 
dense  close  mat  to  aid  in  winter  protection  of  the  roots 
and  in  the  prevention  of  heaving.  Its  chief  objection 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  involves  extra  labor  to  destroy  the 
plants  in  spring. 

TILLAGE   TOOLS 

Few  special  tools  are  needed  in  the  bush-fruit  planta- 
tion. A  cultivator  is  the  first  and  most  important 
implement.  Any  kind  which  will  thoroughly  loosen 
the  soil  and  leave  it  level  will  serve  the  purpose.  It 
should  be  one  which  will  do  good  work  when  widely 
spread,  for  with  full-grown  bushes  it  is  impossible  to 
work  close  to  the  plants  except  with  a  wide  tool,  the 
wings  of  which  can  run  beneath  the  branches.  For 
suckering  varieties  it  is  decidedly  advantageous  to  have 
teeth  which  are  square  on  the  end  instead  of  pointed,  as 
most  cultivator  teeth  are.  Square  teeth  will  cut  off.  the 
suckers  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while 
ordinary  kinds  permit  most  of  them  to  escape.  Such 
teeth  are  also  useful  in  cutting  off  Canada  thistles  and 
other  deep-rooted  weeds  which  often  escape. 

In  soil  which  is  free  from  stones,  knives  or  cutting 
blades  of  steel  can  be  made  by  a  blacksmith  and  at- 
tached to  an  ordinary  cultivator,  so  that  they  will  fol- 
low and  either  cut  or  uproot  everything  which  escapes 
the  teeth.  Such  a  device  is  used  by  E.  T.  Hartley,  of 
Lincoln.  Neb.,  for  cutting  off  plum-sprouts. 

In  mellow  soil  a  scuffle -hoe  is  useful  for  working 
among  plants  which  have  become  large  and  spreading. 


16  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  crescent  souffle -hoe  answers  this  purpose  admira- 
bly. If  preferred,  and  the  materials  are  at  hand,  one 
can  be  made  by  riveting  the  outer  tines  of  an  old  fork 
to  a  piece  of  bush -scythe,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1.* 

In  this  connection  two  devices  for  the 
horse  which  does  the  cultivating  should 
be  mentioned.  One  is  a  wire  muzzle,  in 
the  shape  of  a  basket,,  which  can  be 
slipped  over  the  nose  and  buckled  into 
the  bit -rings.  With  such  a  device  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  nipping  the  plants 
he  will  keep  his  place  in  the  row  and  do 
his  work  better.  The  other  device  is  a 
leather  apron,  to  be  worn  on  his  breast, 
which  will  save  him  many  an  ugly 
Fig.i  Home-made  scratcn.  It  is  generally  necessary  to 

scarifer  or  scraper. 

keep  the  horse  close  to  one  row  to  make 
the  cultivator  reach  under  the  bushes,  and  this  apron 
will  materially  aid  in  doing  it. 

PRUNING 

The  old  canes  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  are 
best  removed  and  burned  as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over. 
Any  insects  that  may  be  contained  in  them  are  thus 
destroyed.  The  canes  can  be  more  easily  cut  at  that 
time,  for  they  are  still  soft,  while  by  spring  they  be- 
come very  dry  and  woody.  This  early  removal  offers 
a  good  opportunity  to  clean  up  the  plantation  and  culti- 

*  Other  patterns  of  useful  tools  are  illustrated  in  «  Garden-Making." 


IMPLEMENTS 


17 


vate  close  to  the  bushes.  '  Though  the  fruiting -habit  of 
currants  and  gooseberries  is  different  from  that  of  bram- 
bles, a  similar  principle  of  renewing  the  fruiting -wood 
may  be  used  with  advantage.  Fruit  borne  on  old  wood 
becomes  deficient  in  size.  It  is  better  therefore  to  cut 
out  all  parts  more  than  two  years  old  and  allow  the 
younger  shoots  to  take  their  places.  This  is  preferable 
to  shortening -in  the  shoots,  for  that  induces  additional 
branching  and  a  dense  undesirable  form  of  bush. 

Some  implement  is  needed  for  cutting  out  the  old 
and  superfluous  canes.  The  work  can  be  done  with 
long-handled  pruning  -  shears,  with  a  corn-cutter  or 
with  an  ordinary  bush -scythe,  but  some  form  of  hooked 
knife,  small  enough  to  work 
among  the  canes  easily  and  cut 
one  at  a  time,  is  more  conven- 
ient. A  good  tool  of  this  kind 
can  be  made  from  a  flat  file, 
properly  bent  and  sharpened, 
then  firmly  driven  into  a  shovel 
or  manure  -  fork  handle,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  William  A. 
Brown  of  Michigan  reports  * 
that  after  trying  many  devices 
he  prefers  a  tool  similar  to  this 
hook,  but  made  from  a  piece 
of  bush -scythe  riveted  to  a  flattened  shank  and  driven 
into  a  handle.  He  also  recommends  a  special  rake  for 
use  in  gathering  up  the  old  canes  when  through  prun- 
ing. It  consists  of  a  head  piece  of  4x4  scantling  5 


Fig.  2. 
Pruning-hook. 


Fig.  3. 
Pruning-spud. 


*Miehigau  Horticultural  Society  Report,  1886,  p.  406. 


18  BUSH-FRUITS 

feet  long.  Into  this  are  fastened  seven  teeth  of  % 
inch  round  iron,  18  inches  long.  Poles  at  right  angles 
to  the  teeth  serve  for  shafts  and  a  bow  is  attached  to 
the  head -piece  for  handling  it.  By  means  of  such  a 
tool  the  canes  can  be  quickly  gathered  into  piles  in  the 
rows,  from  whence  they  can  be  loaded  on  a  hayrack  and 
drawn  away.  A  spud  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  3  is 
often  useful  in  cutting  out  the  canes  or  in  cutting  off 
soft  young  suckers.  It  may  also  be  used  with  advantage 
in  putting  down  the  tips  of  black-caps. 

For  the  spring  pruning,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
shortening -in  the  laterals,  light,  quick  and  easy -working 
shears  are  needed.  If  the  canes  are  not  too  large  and 
woody  a  good  pair  of  sheep -shears  is  most  convenient. 
For  nipping  back  the  new  growth  in  summer  a  long- 
bladed  knife  or  sickle  with  a  keen  edge  will  be  found 
convenient,  particularly  on  young  bushes  where  the 
young  shoots  are  so  exposed  as  to  allow  them  to  be 
clipped  readily.  On  older  bushes,  where  the  young 
shoots  need  to  be  clipped  below  the  height  of  the  older 
canes,  sheep -shears  are  better,  though  the  thumb  and 
finger  may  be  equally  good. 

It  is  necessary  to  go  over  the  plants  more  than  once, 
since  it  is  very  important  that  the  shoots  be  pinched 
when  they  reach  the  desired  height.  If  allowed  to 
grow  taller,  then  cut  back,  the  laterals  will  not  push 
forth  so  vigorously.  If  only  the  tip  is  removed  from 
a  tall  shoot  tha  resulting  bush  will  be  top-heavy  and 
unable  to  hold  up  its  load  of  fruit. 

For  full  discussion  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  pruning, 
consult  "The  Pruning -Book." 


WINTER    INJURIES  19 

» 
WINTER    KILLING 

The  hardiness  of  the  varieties  which  he  cultivates 
is  a  point  of  great  importance  to  the  grower.  The 
question  of  what  constitutes  hardiness  has  puzzled 
growers  much,  and  is  still  unsettled.  That  the  con- 
ditions of  the  season  and  of  growth  affect  in  great 
measure  the  ability  to  endure  the  following  winter 
is  certain,  although  if  a  variety  is  constitutionally 
tender  in  a  given  locality,  there  is  little  hope  that 
any  kind  of  treatment  will  make  it  hardy.  Disease 
or  the  intense  heat  of  summer  may  so  weaken  plants 
that  they  are  unable  to  withstand  the  most  favorable 
winters,  while  strong,  healthy  plants  will  often  endure 
the  most  trying  ones  unhurt.  Raspberry  plants  taken 
up  and  removed  to  the  forcing  house  in  the  fall  of 
1892  showed  all  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  winter 
killing  when  starting  into  growth  under  glass,  yet 
they  had  been  subjected  to  only  enough  cold  to 
admit  of  a  ball  of  earth  being  taken  up  with  them  when 
transferred  to  the  house.  It  is  generally  believed  that 
after  a  comparatively  dry  fall,  favoring  a  slow,  well 
ripened  growth,  plants  endure  the  winter  best,  but 
even  this  theory  of  well  ripened  wood  is  still  open 
to  doubt.  It  is  certain  that  slender  canes  pro- 
duced during  the  latter  part  of  the  season  often 
winter -kill  less  than  those  of  the  whole  season's 
growth.  It  is  unsafe  to  assert  from  this,  however, 
that  immature  wood  is  hardier,  for  canes  produced 
late  are  smaller,  and  may  make  firmer,  better  ripened 
wood  than  those  of  earlier  and  more  vigorous  growth. 


20  BUSH-FRUITS 

There  are  some  very  successful  berry -growers  whose 
practice  is  directly  opposite  to  this  theory,  for  they 
believe  in  thorough  and  frequent  cultivation  up  to 
the  time  of  frost.  This  tends  to  favor  a  late  fall 
growth,  producing  at  least  some  wood  which  cannot 
be  well  ripened  when  winter  sets  in. 

In  many  localities  winter  protection  is  an  essential 
feature  of  berry  growing,  and  many  growers  find  it 
profitable  even  where  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
The  increased  yield,  even  in  mild  climates,  often  more 
than  pays  the  cost  of  protection,  and  a  crop  of  fruit 
is  thereby  insured,  even  though  the  winter  should  be 
an  unusually  trying  one. 

Different  methods  are  employed  for  laying -down 
the  canes.  Some  drive  over  the  rows  with  a  wagon, 
and  the  axle  bends  the  plants  all  in  one  direction.  If 
mulch  of  any  kind  is  used  for  covering,  like  sorghum, 
bagasse  or  coarse  manure,  it  can  be  thrown  from  the 
wagon  on  to  the  plants  at  the  same  time.  A  fence 
rail  is  sometimes  used  to  bend  down  a  section  of  row 
at  once,  leaving  the  rail  there  to  hold  them  down.  A 
simple  and  practical  way  is  to  remove  a  little  earth 
from  the  side  of  the  hill  with  a  spading  or  manure 
fork,  bending  the  plant  down  in  that  direction  and 
throwing  enough  earth  over  the  tips  to  hold  it  there. 
The  plants  are  usually  all  laid  in  one  direction  along 
the  row,  the  tips  of  one  lapping  over  the  roots  of  the 
preceding.  In  very  severe  climates  it  is  best  to  en- 
tirely cover  the  plants  with  earth.  This  is  some- 
times done  by  running  a  plow  along  the  row,  and 
throwing  the  furrow  over  them  after  they  have  been 


LAYING-DOWN    THE   PLANTS  21 

laid  down.  The  objection  to  this  plan  is  that  it 
injures  the  roots,  and  with  suckering  varieties,  causes 
more  suckers  to  spring  up,  so  that  the  time  saved 
is  lost  again  in  fighting  the  suckers  the  following 
season.  Some  plow  a  furrow  along  the  row  the  first 
thing,  and  turn  the  plants  to  the  side,  but  that  plan 
is  open  to  the  same  objection. 

This  laying -down  can  be  done  at  any  time  after 
growth  stops  in  the  fall,  but  before  the  ground 
freezes.  In  some  instances  no  injury  has  followed 
covering  while  yet  in  full  leaf,  with  several  weeks  of 
mild  weather  following.  The  time  of  taking  them 
up  in  the  spring,  however,  is  of  greater  importance, 
for  if  lifted  early,  with  severe  weather  following,  they 
are  much  more  apt  to  be  injured  than  plants  which 
have  not  been  covered  would  be  by  the  same  tempera- 
ture. If  left  too  late,  growth  may  begin  while  they 
are  still  covered,  rendering  them  very  sensitive  to 
even  light  frosts  when  exposed.  It  is  always  bet- 
ter, if  the  work  can  be  so  timed,  that  a  few  days  of 
mild  weather  shall  follow  the  date  of  lifting. 

The  cost  of  protecting  in  this  way  is  variously 
estimated.  T.  T.  Lyon  reports  a  large  plantation 
of  Wilson  Early  blackberries  bearing  a  bountiful  crop, 
which  had  been  laid  down  at  a  cost  not  exceeding 
$1.75  per  acre.  In  Wisconsin,  where  much  of  it  is 
done,  the  cost  of  laying -down  blackberries  and 
lifting  them  again  in  spring  is  estimated  at  about 
$5  per  acre. 

The  verdict  of  all  growers  who  have  practiced  lay- 
ing- down  is  so  unanimously  in  its  favor  that  there  can 


22  BUSH-FRUITS 

be  little  doubt  that  in  all  regions  where  the  winters 
are  especially  severe  or  trying,  it  will  certainly  pay 
to  lay  down  both  .raspberries  and  blackberries.  A 
writer  in  American  Garden  in  1890  makes  the  state- 
ment that  he  can  insure  a  quart  of  blackberries  a 
minute,  for  the  time  spent  in  laying  them  down. 
Some  growers  advise  less  vigorous  summer  pruning, 
or  none  at  all,  where  plants  are  to  be  laid  down. 
Others  who  practice  laying -down  very  extensively 
also  prune  severely. 

Bailey  writes*  as  follows  on  this  subject:  "Black- 
berries and  raspberries  are  extensively  laid  down  in 
cold  climates,  and  it  may  be  well  to  relate  the  method 
here  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  occupy  bleak  loca- 
tions. Late  in  fall,  the  bushes  are  tipped  over  and 
covered.  Three  men  are  generally  employed  to  per- 
form this  labor.  One  man  goes  ahead  with  a  long- 
handled,  round -pointed  shovel  and  digs  the  earth 
away  six  inches  deep  from  under  the  roots.  The 
second  man  has  a  six-tined  or  four-tined  fork  which 
he  thrusts  against  the  plant  a  foot  or  so  above  the 
ground,  and  by  pushing  upon  the  fork  and  stamping 
against  the  roots  with  the  foot,  the  plant  is  laid  over 
in  the  direction  from  which  the  earth  was  removed. 
The  third  man  now  covers  the  plant  with  earth  or 
marsh  hay.  Earth  is  generally  used,  and  if  the  va- 
riety is  a  tender  one  the  whole  bush  is  covered  two 
or  three  inches  deep.  Hardy  varieties  may  be  simply 
held  down  by  throwing  a  few  shovelfulls  of  earth 

*«  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing, "  98. 


LAYING-DOWN    THE    PLANTS  23 

on  the  tops  of  the  canes,  thus  allowing  the  snow  to 
fill  in  amongst  the  tops.  If  the  grower  lives  in  a 
locality  where  he  does  not  fear  late  spring  frosts,  the 
bushes  should  be  raised  early  in  the  spring;  but  if 
frosts  are  feared,  they  may  be  left  under  cover  until 
corn -planting  time.  If  the  buds  become  large  and 
are  bleached  white  under  cover,  they  will  suffer  when 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  ;  and  one  must  watch  the 
bushes  in  spring,  and  raise  them  before  the  buds  be- 
come soft  and  white.  This  method  of  lay  ing -down 
blackberry  plants  costs  less  than  $10  per  acre,  and 
the  slight  breaking  of  the  roots  is  no  disadvantage. 
Some  growers  dig  the  earth  away  on  both  sides  of 
the  row,  and  still  others  bend  over  the  canes  without 
any  digging.  Whatever  method  is  employed,  the 
operator  must  be  careful  not  to  crack  or  split  the 
canes.  The  method  can  be  varied  with  different  va- 
rieties, for  some  bear  stiff er  canes  than  others." 

The  ^same  author  writes*  again  as  follows:  "The 
tops  of  plants  may  be  laid  down  for  the  winter.  Fig. 
4  shows  a  method  of  laying  down  blackberries,  as 
practiced  in  the  Hudson  River  Valley.  The  plants 
were  tied  to  a  trellis,  as  the  method  is  in  that 
country,  two  wires  (a,  bj  having  been  run  on 
either  side  of  the  row.  The  posts  are  hinged  by  a 
pivot  to  a  short  post  (cj,  and  are  held  in  position  by 
a  brace  (d).  The  entire  trellis  is  then  laid  down 
upon  the  approach  of  winter,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  blackberry  tops  are  so  strong  that  they 

*"  Garden-Making,"  62. 


24 


BUSH-FRUITS 


hold  the  wires  up  from  the  ground,  even  when  the 
trellis  is  laid  down.  To  hold  the  wires  close  to  the 
earth,  stakes  are  thrust  over  them  in  a  slanting  posi- 
tion, as  shown  at  n  n.  The  snow  which  drifts 
through  the  plants  ordinarily  affords-  sufficient  pro- 
tection for  plants  which  are  as  hardy  as  grapes  and 


Fig,  5.     Laying -down  trellis-grown  blackberries. 

berries.  In  fact,  the  plants  may  be  uninjured  even 
without  cover,  since,  in  their  prostrate  position,  they 
escape  the  cold  and  drying  winds." 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted,  that  severe 
cold  is  not  the  only  cause  of  winter -killing.  In 
Nebraska,  red  raspberries  and  blackberries  are  com- 
monly killed  to  the  ground  if  left  unprotected,  while 
black -caps  fare  only  a  little  better,  yet  the  climate  is 
no  colder  than  in  New  York  or  Pennsylvania,  where 
protection  is  rarely  given.  The  winter  of  1895-6  was 


RAISING    SEEDLINGS  25 

an  exceptionally  mild  one,  the  mercury  falling  below 
zero  but  once  at  Lincoln,  and  then  only  five  degrees 
below,  yet  the  destruction  was  as  complete  as  ever. 

Young  plants  of  the  Taylor  blackberry  were  uni- 
formly killed  to  the  ground  during  this  winter,  while 
plants  in  adjoining  rows,  of  the  same  age  and  in  every 
way  comparable,  but  which  were  laid  down  and  cov- 
ered, came  through  perfectly  green  to  the  tips.  The 
following  winter,  1896-7,  was  much  colder,  but  the 
preceding  summer  and  autumn  had  been  favorable, 
with  plenty  of  rain,  and  the  plants  went  into  winter 
quarters  with  abundant  moisture  in  the  ground.  Con- 
trary to  their  usual  custom,  and  in  spite  of  much 
lower  temperature,  both  raspberry  and  blackberry 
plants  came  through  the  winter  in  good  condition  with- 
out protection.  Drought  is  more  disastrous  than  cold 
in  Nebraska. 

PROPAGATION  * 

The  common  methods  of  propagation  consist  in  a 
division  or  continuation  of  the  parent  plant  by  means 
of  tips,  suckers  or  cuttings,  according  to  the  habit  of 
the  species.  Reproduction  from  seeds,  by  means  of 
which  new  varieties  are  obtained,  is  the  same  in  all. 
When  the  fruit  is  thoroughly  ripe  the  seeds  should  be 
washed  out  of  the  pulp  in  water,  and  may  then  be 
sown  at  once,  or  first  dried,  like  other  seeds,  and  sown 
later.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  seeds  will  germinate  the  first  spring  after 
sowing  if  put  in  the  soil  at  once,  than  if  dried  and 

*For  extended  discussions  of  propagation  of  plants,  see  "The  Nursery-Book." 


26  B  USH-FR  UITS 

kept  some  time  before  sowing.  Certain  it  is  that  by 
the  latter  method  most  of  them  remain  dormant  during 
one  whole  season,  germinating  the  second  spring. 
Unless  they  are  to  be  sown  in  very  large  quantities, 
gardeners'  flats,  about  two  feet  square  and  five  or  six 
inches  deep,  will  be  found  most  convenient.  The  soil 
used  should  be  rather  light  and  porous,  one  which  will 
not  bake  or  pack  hard.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in 
rows  two  or  three  inches  apart,  or  broadcast  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Cover  lightly  about  one -fourth 
of  an  inch  deep.  The  boxes  can  then  be  put  outside 
in  a  protected,  shady  place,  and  left  till  the  seeds  ger- 
minate. If  the  seeds  are  the  product  of  crosses  or 
particularly  choice  selections,  so  that  they  need  to  be 
kept  pure,  the  flat  should  be  covered  with  a  fine  screen 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  birds  dropping  other 
seeds  into  the  same  box,  as  might  easily  happen, 
especially  if  the  box  has  been  placed  under  trees  to 
secure  the  desired  shade.  The  only  attention  required 
from  this  time  on  is  to  see  that  the  soil  is  not  allowed 
to  dry  out  enough  to  injure  the  germinating  power  of 
the  seeds.  Weeds  should  also  be  pulled  out  as  they 
appear.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  strong  enough  to 
bear  handling,  they  should  be  potted  off  or  reset  in 
other  flats,  putting  them  two  or  three  inches  apart 
each  way.  The  flats  or  pots  in  which  these  young 
plants  are  growing  should  be  well  plunged  in  the 
soil  to  avoid  drying  out.  This  is  of  especial  impor- 
tance in  getting  the  plants  through  the  winter  safely, 
for  lack  of  moisture  in  winter  is  as  destructive  to 
plant  life  as  lack  of  moisture  in  summer.  '  After  one 


THINNING  27 

season's  growth  the  plants  may  be  strong  enough  to 
be  set  in  the  open  ground,  but  they  need  mellow, 
well -prepared  soil  and  careful  attention,  for  most  of 
them  will  still  be  small  and  weak.  Growing  plants 
from  seeds  is  a  slow  process,  and  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  offspring  will  show  nothing  superior  to  the 
parent  or  to  other  varieties  already  in  cultivation. 

THINNING    THE    FRUIT 

Thinning  is  often  advantageous  with  the  larger 
fruits,  and  is  easily  done  with  berries  by  clipping  off 
a  part  of  each  cluster  or  some  clusters  entirely.  A 
limited  experiment  to  test  the  value  of  such  practice 
did  not  give  encouraging  results  with  either  raspber- 
ries or  blackberries.  The  eye  could  detect  no  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  berries  on  thinned  plants,  and,  since 
the  principal  gain  would  be  in  the  increased  size  and 
attractiveness  of  the  fruit,  it  seemed  to  fail  of  its 
purpose. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  thinning  is  done  at  the 
annual  spring  pruning,  and  if  the  proper  balance  has 
been  obtained  then,  there  is  no  need  of  further  reduc- 
ing the  number  of  fruits. 

EFFECT    OF    SPRAYING    ON    POLLINATION* 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  rainy  and  cloudy 
weather  at  blossoming  time  is  injurious  to  the  fruit 
crop,  and  the  question  occurs  whether  frequent  spray- 
ing with  water  at  this  period  would  produce  any  no- 


*Fred  W.  Card,  Bull.  57,  Cornell  Exp.  Statioi 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


28  BUSH-FRUITS 

ticeable  effect.  On  June  15,  1892,  spraying  was  begun 
on  Caroline,  Cuthbert  and  Turner  raspberries.  At 
that  time  the  Caroline  was  well  in  bloom,  while  the 
others  were  scarcely  beginning  to  bloom.  The  spray- 
ing was  continued  until  July  1,  two  to  four  times 
each  day  when  the  weather  was  bright  and  pleasant, 
but  omitted  when  there  were  rains  to  take  its  place. 
Showers  were  frequent  during  this  period,  but  were 
well  interspersed  with  bright  weather  and  sunshine. 

The  results  were  entirely  negative,  showing  no  ef- 
fect whatever  from  the  spraying.  The  fruits  on  this 
part  of  the  row  were  just  as  perfect  and  abundant, 
and  the  plants  appeared  to  suffer  no  more  from  fun- 
gous diseases  than  those  not  sprayed.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  conditions  were  not  the  same 
as  those  present  in  continuous  cloudy  weather,  for 
during  much  of  this  time  the  weather  was  bright  and 
insects  were  numerous,  and  continued  working  among 
the  blossoms  regardless  of  their  being  wet,  so  that 
opportunities  for  pollination  were  good. 

The  test  is  of  interest  as  showing  that  there  need 
be  no  fear  of  interfering  with  pollination  by  spraying 
for  insects  or  diseases,  even  if  necessary  to  do  it  at 
blossoming  time.  Of  course,  it  should  not  be  done 
a-t  that  time,  ordinarily,  on  account  of  the  bees. 

FORCING    RASPBERRIES    AND    BLACKBERRIES* 

When  the  ground  began  to  freeze  in  the  fall  of 
1892,  several  strong  raspberry  and  blackberry  plants 

*Bull.  57,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


FORCING    BUSH-FRUITS  29 

of  bearing  age  were  dug  about,  and,  when  frozen, 
the  ball  of  earth,  with  the  plant,  was  lifted  and  trans- 
ferred to  boxes  about  twenty  inches  square  in  the 
forcing -houses.  They  were  placed  in  a  cool  or  lettuce 
house  and  came  on  very  slowly,  the  temperature  evi- 
dently being  too  low  for  them,  and  no  fruit  ripened 
before  April.  One  plant  placed  in  a  warmer  house 
came  on  much  more  rapidly.  As  spring  approached, 
bringing  higher  temperature  and  more  sunshine,  the 
plants  began  to  blossom  freely.  At  first  no  hand -pol- 
linating was  done,  but  it  did  not  take  long  to  see 
that  no  perfect  fruit  would  be  formed  without  it,  and 
afterwards  the  flowers  were  pollinated  as  they  appeared, 
with  good  and  perfectly  normal  fruit  as  the  result. 
This  can  be  quickly  done  by  knocking  off  the  pollen 
and  catching  it  in  a  spoon  or  a  small  watch-glass  set 
in  a  convenient  handle  of  wood,  the  pistils  then 
being  dipped  in  this  pollen. 

With  young  plants,  started  in  boxes  or  large  pots 
in  spring,  so  as  to  be  well  established  when  transferred 
to  the  forcing -house  in  the  fall  or  winter,  there  seems 
to  be  no  reason  why  good  crops  of  raspberries  and 
blackberries  cannot  be  grown  under  glass.  They 
appear  to  require  a  comparatively  high  temperature, 
however,  and  demand  artificial  pollination. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON    PICKING 

Always  avoid  picking  when  the  fruit  is  wet,  unless 
made  absolutely  necessary  by  continued  showery 
weather.  Fruit  put  in  the  baskets  wet  can  seldom 


30  BUSH-FRUITS 

come  out  in  good  condition,  and  must  reach  the  con- 
sumer very  promptly  in  order  to  avoid  molding  and 
loss.  But  whatever  the  condition  when  picked,  it 
should  be  promptly  brought  to  a  cool,  shady  place, 
where  plenty  of  air  is  accessible,  and  go  from  there 
to  market  and  to  the  consumer  with  the  least  possi- 
ble delay.  A  spring -wagon  of  some  kind  is  a  neces- 
sity for  transporting  it,  and  good  roads  over  which  to 
travel  add  wonderfully  to  the  value  of  a  location. 
If  very  large  quantities  are  to  be  handled,  it  may  pay 
to  have  a  special  truck  wagon,  with  springs  and  a 
broad  top  reaching  beyond  the  wheels,  or  springs  may 
be  made  to  fit  the  bolsters  of  the  ordinary  farm 
wagon. 

With  a  business  of  any  considerable  extent,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  have  some  systematic  method 
of  keeping  account  of  the  amount  of  work  done  by 
pickers.  Several  methods  are  in  general  use.  One 
of  the  simplest  is  to  have  printed  tickets,  which  are 
given  out  as  the  berries  are  brought  in,  exchanging 
them  for  higher  denominations  as  occasion  requires. 
At  the  end  of  the  day's  work  these  can  be  surrendered 
and  the  amount  credited  in  a  book  or  billet  kept  for 
the  purpose.  The  tickets  are  considered  the  same  as 
money  when  given  out,  and  if  lost,  it  is  the  picker's 
loss  and  not  the  owner's. 

Another  plan  in  use  to  a  certain  extent,  and  which 
is  very  simple  and  satisfactory,  is  to  fasten  a  card,  by 
means  of  a  safety-pin,  to  the  shoulder  of  each  picker, 
and  then  indicate  the  number  of  quarts  brought  in 
each  time  by  punching  the  card,  crediting  up  at  the 


PICKING  31 

end  of  the  day,  as  before.  The  cards  can  then  be  kept 
by  the  pickers  as  vouchers  on  their  part,  to  guard 
against  errors  on  the  books.* 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  managing  a 
crowd  of  pickers  is  to  get  the  fruit  picked  clean,  and 
it  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  have  a  rigid  system  of 
assignment  to  rows,  with  a  careful  foreman  almost 
constantly  in  the  field  to  go  over  the  work  frequently 
and  see  that  it  is  well  done.  The  shiftless  picker 
must  be  made  to  go  over  the  row  again.  From  a 
limited  experience  in  managing  a  crowd  of  city  ur- 
chins in  experimental  gardens,  where  an  assignment 
of  rows  was  impracticable,  I  can  speak  with  full  assur- 
ance concerning  the  importance  of  this  precaution. 

Another  precaution  nearly  always  necessary  is  to 
reserve  a  portion  of  the  price  per  quart,  usually  half 
a  cent,  until  the  close  of  the  season,  with  the  under- 
standing that  only  those  who  work  through  to  the  end 
shall  receive  the  full  amount.  If  this  is  not  done,  the 
amount  of  "headache"  and  the  number  of  other  ex- 
cuses which  will  develop  will  be  something  astonish- 
ing, and  the  outcome  will  be  that  a  few  conscientious 
pickers  will  be  left  to  finish  up  the  poorer  picking, 
with  inconvenience  to  the  grower  and  injustice  to 
them.  Some  overcome  the  difficulty  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent by  varying  the  price  with  the  condition  of  the 
picking,  but  this  plan  must  lead  to  more  or  less 
confusion. 


*Consult  Chapter  viii.,  "Principles  of  Fruit-Gro wine,"  for  further  discussion 
of  these  questions. 


32  BUSH-FRUITS 


PACKAGES    AND    MARKETING 

As  the  season  of  marketing  approaches,  an  abun- 
dance of  packages,  of  a  kind  suited  to  the  demands  of 
the  market  available,  will  be  needed.  Many  styles  of 
crates  and  baskets  are  offered,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  some  form  of  the  standard  thirty -two  quart  crate, 
holding  full  dry  measure  quart  baskets,  is  always  to 
be  recommended.  If  a  near-by  market  can  be  de- 
pended upon  to  absorb  the  crop,  a  good,  substantial, 
well-made  crate  is  desirable  ;  one  which  will  make  its 
lightness  and  durability  of  value  in  the  repeated  hand- 
ling. On  the  other  hand,  if  fruit  must  be  shipped 
some  distance,  there  will  be  an  inevitable  loss  of  crates 
and  baskets,  and  it  may  be  found  better  to  use  gift 
crates  altogether,  or  at  least  one  which  is  cheap  enough 
so  that  the  loss  of  those  which  never  find  their  way 
back  will  not  be  seriously  felt. 

A  very  cheap  and  satisfactory  crate  was  fully  de- 
scribed several  years  ago  by  E.  W.  Reid,  of  Ohio,*  and 
is  the  style  universally  used  in  that  vicinity.  The 
material  is  bought  from  the  planing  mill,  sawed  ready 
for  nailing  together,  and  put  up  at  home  during  the 
winter.  Being  in  small  pieces,  much  of  it  can  be  cut 
from  cull  lumber,  which  makes  the  price  more  rea- 
sonable. I  copy  Mr.  Reid's  figures,  together  with  the 
estimated  cost  and  directions  for  making.  Here  is 
the  cost  of  one  hundred  crates  at  that  time  in  his 
locality : 

*Popular  Gardening,  iii.  158. 


CRA  TES 


33 


Lumber,  ready  to  nail $30  00 

Nails ,    .    .      3  00 

Leather  for  hinges  and  fastenings 1  50 

1  gross  of  buckles  (144) 80 

1  man  4  days,  $1  per  day,  to  put  together  .    .      4  00 


Total $39  30 


The  following  are  the  dimensions: 


Length 

Width 

Thickness 

End 

16       in 

11 

in  • 

1  in. 

Side    

-    .    .24%  " 

12 

<  < 

i/  « 

Strips  for  side  .    )  . 

.    .    .  24%  " 

3 
2 

<  < 
<  < 

y" 

and  bottom  .  .    1  q 

94  1/    " 

3  lx 

/  1  1 

i/   <' 

In  Fig.  5,  A  shows  the  solid  end,  with  hand-hole 
sawed  with  circular  saw  ;  J3,  the  lid,  worked  on 
leather  hinges,  and 
fastened  with  strap  -and 
buckles.  The  three  side 
strips  marked  C  are 
three  inches  wide,  those 
marked  D  are  two  inches 
wide.  The  bottom  strips 
are  three  and  one -half 
inches  wide  and  one- 
half  inch  thick.  F 
shows  the  fastenings 
and  hinges.  The  side 
and  bottom  slats  are 
arranged  so  that  the  openings  come  about  the  middle 
of  the  baskets  in  each  tier,  giving  good  ventilation, 
and  holding  the  baskets  firmly  in  place. 


Fig.  5.     A  useful  berry  crate. 


34  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  tray  used  between  the  tiers  of  baskets  is  shown 
in  Fig.  6,  the  size  of  the  pieces  being  as  follows: 

Length  Width  Thickness 

2  strips  .    .  22%  in.  1%  in.  %  in. 

1       "       .    .22%  M  2%    "  K  " 

5  rails     .    .  11       "       %    tapering  to  %  at  bot.  1    " 

The  outside  rails  taper  on  only  one  side.  This 
tapering  of  the  cross-pieces  is  a  great  advantage,  allow- 
ing them  to  rest  on  the  sides  of  the  baskets  without 
crushing  the  berries,  and  since  they  are  an  inch  high 
they  make  it  possible  to  round  up 
the  baskets  as  they  should  be  and 
still  keep  the  top  presentable.  It 
will  be  easy  to  modify  the  dimen- 


I       II        II       II I 


M        II        II       I 


Fig.  6.    Tray  used  in  the        sionS      and     styles     to     Correspond 

crate.  to  any  form,  of  basket  that  cir- 

cumstances may  make  advisable,  but  the  figures  and 
dimensions  given  will  serve  as  an  excellent  basis  on 
which  to  work. 

For  nailing  up  the  crates,  some  kind  of  form  is  of 
great  service.  This  can  be  made  from  a  good,  solid 
box,  by  cutting  slots  in  the  side  exactly  opposite  and 
the  right  distance  apart  for  the  end  pieces.  This  will 
make  it  easy  to  put  up  each  crate  true  and  square, 
and  it  can  be  done  much  quicker  than  without  such  a 
device. 

Picking -stands  holding  four  quart  baskets  each  are 
a  necessary  addition  to  the  outfit.  They  enable  the 
pickers  to  keep  their  fruit  safe  and  clean,  preventing 
much  inconvenience  in  tipping  over  and  spilling. 


PACKAGES    FOR    BERRIES  35 

Carriers  exactly  like  these,  but  long  enough  to  hold 
eight  baskets  instead  of  four,  are  always  convenient 
to  have  in  gathering  up  and  carrying  berries  from 
the  field.  They  consist  of  a  plain  slat  frame  with 
four  short  legs  to  raise  them  slightly  from  the  ground, 
and  a  handle  something  like  those  used  on  grape 
baskets.  The  stands  can  be  bought  of  dealers  in  fruit 
packages  at  reasonable  prices,  or  can  be  put  up  at 
home  in  winter. 

It  will  seldom  pay  to  buy  the  quart  baskets  in  the 
flat  and  nail  them  up  at  home.  In  the  end  they  are 
pretty  sure  to  cost  as  much  and  probably  more  than 
if  bought  ready  for  use.  Very  few  workmen  have  the 
knack  of  systematizing  work  of  that  kind,  and  mak- 
ing quick  motions  that  will  count  to  good  advantage. 
The  average  man  will  go  at  the  work  with  about  the 
same  speed  that  he  would  use  in  shoveling  a  load  of 
sand,  and  the  result  is  that,  when  night  comes,  if 
the  value  of  his  day's  wages  is  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  baskets  he  has  made,  the  chances  are  that  they 
will  be  found  to  have  cost  a  good  round  price.  The 
chief  advantage  in  making  at  home  is  to  utilize  time 
of  comparatively  little  value  when  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  a  steady  force  of  help  throughout  the  season. 
For  currants,  and  especially  gooseberries,  the  ordinary 
grape  baskets  are  much  used,  and  in  many  cases  will 
be  found  more  satisfactory  than  quart  baskets,  par- 
ticularly for  shipping. 

Selling  the  product  is  one  of  the  most  essential 
features  of  the  whole  business.  Many  a  man  can  grow 
fruits  successfully,  but  fails  because  he  cannot  market 


36  BUSH-FRUITS 

them  well.  Yet  nobody  can  tell  him  how  to  do  this 
part  of  the  work.  It  is  largely  a  special  problem,  to 
be  worked  out  for  each  individual  case,  and  the  man 
who  fails  to  make  a  careful  study  of  his  conditions  and 
to  devise  plans  for  the  satisfactory  disposal  of  his  pro- 
ducts, will  surely  fail,  and  there  is  no  help  for  it. 

REMARKS    ON    CROSSING    BERRIES* 

It  is  only  within  comparatively  recent  time  that 
the  necessity  of  careful,  systematic  plant -breeding  has 
been  recognized,  and  the  history  and  development  of 
horticulture  is  a  conspicuous  evidence  of  the  fact. 
Animal  breeders  have  long  recognized  the  necessity 
of  working  along  definite  lines  with  definite  aims  in 
view.  Horticulturists,  on  the  other  hand,  have  for 
the  most  part  been  content  to  take  what  they  found 
and  call  it  good,  at  least  until  something  better  ap- 
peared. In  looking  over  the  history  of  American  va- 
rieties of  fruits,  one  can  hardly  fail  to  be  struck  by 
the  almost  continuous  recurrence  of  the  phrase,  "a 
chance  seedling,"  "found  growing,"  and  the  like.  The 
sooner  we  begin  to  work  for  what  we  want  in  ac- 
cordance with  scientific  principles  and  with  a  definite 
purpose  in  mind,  the  sooner  will  we  see  the  progress 
and  improvement  for  which  we  hope. 

To  some  the  terms  crossing  and  hybridizing  may 
convey  the  idea  of  something  too  scientific  and  too 
difficult  for  the  majority  of  people  to  undertake.  On 


*The  whole  question  of  breeding  by  means  of  crossing  is  discussed  in  Bailey's 
"  Plant-Breeding". 


CROSSING    FOR    NEW    VARIETIES  37 

the  other  hand,  there  is  reason  to  fear,  from  the 
number  and  character  of  many  of  the  so-called  crosses 
introduced  from  time  to  time,  that  many  have  far  too 
loose  an  idea  of  what  crossing  really  means.  While 
there  is  nothing  particularly  difficult  in  the  operation, 
it  is,  for  the  most  part,  slow  and  delicate  work,  and 
requires  extreme  care  to  insure  certainty  as  to  the 
purity  of  the  results.  We  have  no  right  to  assert 
that  a  plant  is  a  cross  unless  we  know  beyond  perad- 
venture  that  no  other  pollen  except  that  of  a  given 
parent  has  been  allowed  to  reach  the  stigma  of  the 
flower  which  developed  the  seed  from  which  the  plant 
in  question  was  produced.  The  mere  fact  that  pollen 
of  a  given  variety  has  been  applied  to  the  stigma  of 
another  variety  is  no  evidence  that  crossing  has  taken 
place.  In  order  to  explain  the  methods  of  crossing, 
and  to  show  what  results  may  be  expected,  this  record 
of  experience  is  inserted. 

The  methods  of  crossing  vary  with  the  character 
and  structure  of  the  flower  in  question,  but  the  essen- 
tial feature  is  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  pollen  of 
the  flower  which  is  to  serve  as  the  female  parent  must 
be  carefully  and  completely  removed  before  it  ripens, 
then  the  flower  must  be  carefully  covered  until  the 
stigma  is  ready  to  receive  pollen  and  admit  of  fecun- 
dation. The  flowers  of  the  male  parent  should  also 
be  carefully  covered  before  opening,  to  prevent  the 
admixture  of  pollen  from  any  other  plants.  At  the 
proper  time  this  pollen  is  conveyed  to  the  stigma  of 
the  protected  flower  on  the  female  plant,  and  the  flower 
again  covered  until  it  has  reached  such  a  stage  that 


38  BUSH-FRUITS 

fecundation  is  no  longer  possible.  If  properly  fertilized 
by  the  pollen  applied,  the  stigma  very  soon  withers, 
but  if  not,  it  may  remain  in  a  receptive  condition  for 
several  days. 

In  crossing  brambles  or  groselles,  select  a  cluster 
which  has  several  buds  nearly  ready  to  open,  if  such  a 
one  is  to  be  found.  Cut  off  all  younger  buds,  all 
which  have  already  begun  to  open,  all  flowers  and  all 
fruit  which  has  already  set,  leaving  only  the  few  un- 
opened buds  which  are  of  about  the  same  age.  The 
next  step  is  to  remove  all  stamens  from  these  buds. 
As  the  number  of  stamens  is  large,  to  remove  each  one 
separately  would  be  a  tedious  task.  Fortunately,  how- 
ever, in  the  rose  and  saxifrage  families,  to  which  these 
fruits  belong,  the  stamens  are  borne  on  the  calyx. 
This  enables  us  to  get  rid  of  them  all  by  simply  cut- 
ting away  the  calyx.  This  can  be  con- 
veniently done  either  with  fine,  sharp- 
pointed  scissors,  or  with  a  spatula  made 
from  a  pin  stuck  in  the  end  of  a  stick, 
then  flattened  and  sharpened  at  the 
edges.  Turn  the  bud  (Fig.  7)  bottom 
side  up,  and  cut  a  circle  around  the 
stem  not  far  from  it.  The  whole  calyx 
Fig.  7.  Raspberry  will  then  come  away,  taking  the  stamens 
bemarsec±e'  with  it  (Fig.  8).  After  all  the  buds 
have  been  thus  treated,  care  being  taken 
that  no  anthers  are  left,  the  cluster  is  covered  with  a 
paper  sack.  Half  or  quarter -pound  grocers7  sacks 
answer  the  purpose  well.  If  the  open  end  of  the 
bag  is  moistened,  the  paper  can  be  pressed  more  closely 


CROSSING  39 

about  the  stem.  Some  flat  tying  material  is  best  for 
tying,  raffia  being  most  convenient  if  at  hand.  At  the 
same  time,  a  cluster  on  the  variety  which  is  to  be  used 
as  the  male  parent  should  be  covered  in  the  same  way, 
in  order  to  have  pure  pollen  to  apply  at  the  right  time. 
When  first  emasculated,  a  raspberry  bud  will  have 
much  the  appearance  of  Fig.  8,  but  usually  in  about 
two  days,  in  warm  weather,  it  will  have  devel- 
oped far  enough  to  be  ready  for  pollination. 
It  will  then  have  the  appearance  of  Fig.  9  ; 
the  styles  will  be  extended  and  spreading,  and 
the  stigmas  will  have  a  sticky  look,  indicating 
that  they  are  in  a  receptive  condition.  Black- 
berries often  require  several  days  to  sufficiently 


develop    after   emasculation,    especially  late    in  tioncom- 
the  season  if  the  weather  is  cool. 

When  the  stigmas  are  ready,  uncover  the  cluster 
from  which  the  pollen  is  to  be  Obtained,  select  a 
blossom  from  which  it  dusts  out  freely,  and  apply 
it  to  the  ones  to  be  fertilized.  The  pollen  may  be 
collected  and  applied  with  a  spatula  or  camel's  -hair 
brush,  but  if  in  the  right  condition,  applying  the 
flower  direct  is  the  simplest  way.  The  pollinated 
cluster  must  then  be  at  once  covered,  as  before,  and 
left  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  that 
time,  if  all  the  stigmas  have  shriveled  away,  the  paper 
sack  may  be  replaced  by  one  of  mosquito  netting, 
which  will  admit  light  and  air,  but  still  protect  the 
fruit  from  birds  and  boys. 

In  case  of  the  brambles,  the  result  will  often  be 
an  imperfect  berry.  Only  a  few  of  the  akenes  are 


40  BUSH-FRUITS 

likely  to  be  fecundated,  and  there  may  not  be  enough 
to^fill  out  all  the  space  on  the  receptacle  (Fig.  10). 
When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  seeds  should  be  planted 
and  cared  for  as  heretofore 
directed  for  growing  plants 
from  seed,  except  that  es- 
pecial care  should  be  used 
in  all  the  operations  to 
avoid  mixture,  or  injury  to 


pig  9        occuo      or      young      plants.     Fig  10    Result  of 
Reads- to  poi-  Crossing  requires  much  time,       incomplete  poi- 

linate  ^  •  -i  TIT  lination. 

and   accidents  are    liable    to 

occur  all  along  the  line,  so  that  the  result  of  a 
summer's  work  may  be,  in  the  end,  only  a  few 
plants,  most  or  all  of  which  are  worthless.  Yet 
persistent  effort  in  this  line  should  be  encouraged, 
and  in  time  the  results  are  likely  to  repay  all  the  at- 
tempts made. 

During  the  summer  of  1890  considerable  work  was 
done  by  the  writer  in  crossing  different  varieties  and 
species  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  in  the  hor- 
ticultural gardens  at  Cornell  University.  A  num- 
ber of  plants  came  through  to  fruiting  age.  Notes 
were  taken  in  the  summer  of  1894  on  all  those  which 
had  then  begun  to  fruit.  The  substance  of  these 
notes  is  given  below,  and  may  prove  of  interest  as 
showing  some  of  the  tendencies  exhibited.  In  writ- 
ing the  records  of  crosses,  the  seed -bearing  parent 
is  placed  first.  For  example,  "Gregg  X  Shaffer" 
means  that  pistils  of  Gregg  received  pollen  from 
Shaffer. 


RESULTS   OF    CROSSING  41 

GREGG  X  SHAFFER  (Eubus  occidentalis  X  R-  neglectus) 

Five  plants  from  seed  of  Gregg,  fertilized  with  pol- 
len of  the  Shaffer,  were  growing  and  fruiting.  Four 
of  them  resembled  the  Gregg  much  in  character  of 
plant,  and  one  approached  more  nearly  to  the  Shaffer. 
In  character  of  fruit  cluster  three  were  more  or  less 
elongated  like  Shaffer,  and  two  more  closely  aggre- 
gated like  Gregg.  The  fruit  varied  in  character  be- 
tween that  of  the  two  parents,  in  one  case  closely  ap- 
proaching Shaffer,  in  others  more  nearly  intermediate 
or  nearer  the  Gregg.  The  color  in  some  of  them 
was  much  like  that  of  a  black -cap  not  fully  ripe. 

FONTENAY  X  CUTHBERT    (Eubus  Id(EUS  X  R"  StrigOSUS) 

There  were  five  plants  of  this,  four  of  which  did 
not  germinate  till  the  second  spring  after  sowing  the 
seed,  and  were  fruiting  but  little.  Three  resembled 
the  Fontenay  in  character  of  growth,  one  the  Cuthbert, 
and  one  was  intermediate.  The  little  fruit  thus  far 
produced  showed  no  value. 

SHAFFER  X  CUTHBERT  (Eubus  neglectus  X  -K-  strigosus) 

Thirty-one  plants  of  this  cross  were  growing,  show- 
ing various  intermediate  stages  between  the  two  parents. 
The  majority  thus  far  seemed  to  resemble  the  male 
parent  in  character  of  plant  and  in  propagation  by 
suckers.  Of  the  older  plants,  which  were  fruiting  well, 
some  produced  typical  red  raspberry  fruits  as  light, 
and  in  some  cases  possibly  even  brighter,  than  Cuth- 
bert in  color ;  others  were  darker,  and  resembled  Shaf- 


42  BUSH-FRUITS 

fer  more.  One  in  particular  bore  a  large,  bright  red 
berry,  resembling  Cuthbert  in  shape  and  flavor,  and 
promised  well.  Another,  bearing  a  smaller,  darker 
berry,  seemed  to  be  productive,  and  the  flavor  was 
very  rich  and  good,  much  better  than  most  varieties. 

CUTHBERT  X  SHAFFER  (Eubus  strigosus  X  E.  neglectus) 

Three  plants  of  this  cross  showed  various  inter- 
mediate characters,  but  nothing  especially  promising. 

ADA  X  CUTHBERT  (Eubus  occidentals  X  E.  strigosus) 

Of  this  cross  there  were  three  comparatively  weak 
plants,  none  of  them  yet  bearing  fruit.  All  seemed  to 
resemble  the  male  parent  more  than  the  female  parent 
in  character  of  cane.  There  was  then  no  indication 
as  to  the  method  of  propagation. 

In  addition  to  the  above  crosses  between  different 
species  or  types,  there  were  three  plants  of  Cuthbert 
X  Turner  and  seven  of  Turner  X  Cuthbert.  None  of 
them  were  bearing  sufficiently  well  to  judge  of  their 
value.  In  general,  they  showed  the  same  intermediate 
gradations  which  were  to  be  seen  in  the  other  cases. 

Observations  made  the  following  year  by  E.  G. 
Lodeman  and  C.  E.  Hunn  showed  nothing  of  value 
among  any  of  these  plants.  One  lesson  which  the 
results  of  the  work  as  a  whole  made  plain  is  that 
really  useful  varieties  are  to  be  obtained  by  commin- 
gling closely  related  varieties  or  types,  rather  than 
those  distantly  related,  a  lesson  which  has  been 
taught  in  many  other  ways  before. 


PAET  II 

THE    BRAMBLES 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   EED   RASPBEEEIES 

In  this  discussion  of  the  red  raspberry,  three  types 
of  fruits  are  included, — the  foreign  or  European  class, 
the  true  American  reds,  and  the  hybrid  reds  or  purple- 
canes.  Types  of  the  first  class  are  Antwerp  and  Fon- 
tenay,  of  the  second,  Cuthbert,  of  the  third,  Phila- 
delphia and  Shaffer. 


SOIL 

Like  the  other  members  of  the  bramble  family,  the 
red  raspberry  can  be  made  to  succeed  on  almost  any 
kind  of  soil,  the  prime  essential  being  that  it  shall  be 
well -drained  and  retentive  of  moisture.  An  upland 
sandy  or  clay  loam  is  likely  to  give  the  best  results. 
The  land  should  be  of  moderate  fertility,  rich  enough 
to  produce  liberal  crops  of  fruit  without  being  so  strong 
as  to  cause  an  over -vigorous  growth  of  canes.  This 
over -richness  is  apt  to  be  the  difficulty  with  bottom 
lands,  or  any  other  low  and  moist  location.  Such  rapid 

(43) 


44  BUSH-FRUITS 

growth  not  only  tends  in  itself  to  decrease  produc- 
tiveness, but  the  wood  is  usually  not  sufficiently  dense 
and  well  ripened  to  stand  the  winter.  A  stiff,  hard 
clay  is  equally  unfavorable,  and  any  soil  which  is  wet 
and  soggy  during  -any  considerable  portion  of  the  year 
is  sure  to  result  in  at  least  partial  failure.  The  rasp- 
berry is  one  of  the  first  of  all  fruits  to  suffer  from 
excessive  moisture  in  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
quickly  suffers  from  drought  at  ripening ;  hence  the 
demand  is  for  a  soil  which,  while  never  surfeited  with 
moisture,  is  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  retentive  to 
be  able  to  supply  it  in  sufficient  quantities  throughout 
the  season. 

The  variety  has  something  to  do  with  the  choice  of 
soils.  The  more  vigorous  the  variety  in  habit  of 
growth,  the  lighter  and  drier  the  soil  'best  adapted  to 
it,  as  a  rule,  and  vice  versa.  The  Cuthbert  is  one  of 
our  most  vigorous  growers,  and  usually  succeeds  well 
on  upland,  while  some  of  the  more  feeble  growers, 
like  Hansell,  may  do  better  on  lowlands. 

LOCATION 

The  cooler  the  spot  the  larger  and  finer  the  berries. 
This  is  the  rule  with  wild  berries.  Hence  a  northern 
exposure  which  will,  in  so  far  as  possible,  mitigate  the 
scorching  sun  and  excessive  heat  likely  to  occur  at 
ripening  time,  is  the  one  to  be  sought,  particularly  in 
the  mid -continental  regions.  A  location  which  is  too 
hot  may  be  much  alleviated,  however,  by  thorough- 
going tillage. 


FERTILIZERS   AND  PROPAGATION  45 

FERTILIZERS 

Red  raspberries  do  not  need  heavy  fertilizing  unless 
grown  on  very  unproductive  land.  On  such  soil  stable 
manure  can  be  used  in  limited  quantities  with  good 
results.  Little  nitrogen  is  required,  and  its  application 
is  apt  to  be  money  wasted.  It  may  also  induce  too 
much  growth  of  cane  with  ill -developed  fruit -buds  and 
deficient  fruitfulness.  Potash  is  desirable  but  is  not 
needed  in  large  quantities.  It  may  be  supplied  in 
muriate  of  potash  or  in  wood -ashes.  Fifty  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash  per  acre,  annually,  will  supply  more 
potash  than  the  fruit  will  remove.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  part  of  what  is  applied  must  inva- 
riably be  lost.  If  phosphoric  acid  is  needed  an  application 
of  two  hundred  fifty  pounds  of  floats  or  ground  bone, 
harrowed  in  before  setting  the  plants,  will  supply  it. 
The  grower  should  carefully  experiment  upon  his  own 
soil  to  determine  whether  commercial  fertilizers  are 
really  needed,  and  if  so  what.  Let  the  humus -supply 
be  first  considered,  the  chemicals  later. 

PROPAGATION 

Red  raspberries  attend  to  their  own  propagation 
without  aid.  The  grower  is  more  concerned  with 
destroying  the  plants  which  appear  than  with  increas- 
ing their  production.  Most  varieties  sucker  freely,  and 
these  suckers  must  be  kept  down  to  obtain  satisfactory 
fruit -production.  If  it  becomes  desirable  to  hasten  the 
propagation  of  new  and  desirable  varieties  they  may  be 


46  B  USH-FR  UITS 

increased  more  rapidly  by  disturbing  or  cutting  the 
roots  and  by  means  of  root  cuttings,  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  described  for  blackberries.  As  else- 
where stated,  care  should  be  exercised  in  taking  up 
the  plants  for  setting.  They  should  always  be  lifted 
by  thrusting  some  tool  beneath  the  roots  and  loosening 
the  earth  above.  They  should  never  be  pulled  up 
directly,  for  this  is  altogether  likely  to  break  the  shoot 
from  the  root  from  which  it  sprang,  leaving  only  a 
straight  stem,  with  very  few  fibrous  roots  on  it,  from 
which  to  develop  the  root  system  of  the  young  plant. 
In  this  instance,  as  in  every  other,  good  results  are  to 
be  expected  only  when  the  operator  informs  himself  as 
to  methods,  and  then  does  the  best  he  knows  how. 

PLANTING 

Most  of  the  directions  given  for  planting  the  black- 
berry will  apply  equally  well  to  the  red  raspberry,  and 
like  that,  it  is  adapted  to  either  spring  or  fall  planting. 
The  chief  difference  between  the  two,  so  far  as  plant- 
ing is  concerned,  is  that  the  red  raspberry  requires  less 
room.  About  the  same  arguments  will  apply  in  both 
cases  in  regard  to  the  time  of  planting  and  to  the 
method,  whether  in  hills  or  check  rows.  If  in  rows, 
the  usual  distance  is  six  feet  apart  and  about  three  feet 
in  the  row.  The  young  plants  will  very  soon  fill  in 
the  intervening  spaces,  making  a  solid  row  unless  cut 
down.  Just  this  fact,  moreover,  is  a  very  good  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  hill  planting.  So  many  suckers  are 
thrown  up  that  the  hedge  gets  denser  and  broader 


PLANTING    THE  REDS  47 

as  the  plants  keep  crowding  outward  and  narrowing 
the  space  between  the  rows.  The  result  is  that  soon 
only  weak  and  spindling  canes  can  be  developed,  and 
the  whole  plantation  is  virtually  crowded  out.  Of 
course,  there  is  a  remedy  for  this  in  persistently  and 
vigorously  thinning  out,  but  this  is  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive work,  and  is  very  rarely  done  as  it  should  be. 
While  this  difficulty  cannot  be  wholly  overcome  by  any 
system  of  planting,  still  if  the  plants  are  in  hills  and 
the  cultivator  kept  going  thoroughly  in  both  direc- 
tions, it  is  largely  obviated.  Five  feet  apart  each  way 
is  about  the  most  satisfactory  distance  for  reds  in  hills, 
though  some  growers  plant  them  as  close  as  four  feet. 
This  may  prove  sufficient  for  the  smaller -growing  va- 
rieties, but  for  the  more  vigorous  -  growing  sorts  it  is 
likely  to  prove  too  close,  though  four  feet  one  way 
might  do.  It  is  sometimes  recommended  to  set  the 
plants  two  and  one -half  feet  apart  in  one  direction,  on 
high-priced  land,  then  tear  out  every  alternate  plant 
after  the  first  two  crops  and  cultivate  both  ways,  the 
idea  being  to  thus  utilize  the  land  more  fully  at  the 
beginning. 

The  young  shoots  of  red  raspberry  plants  can  be 
successfully  planted  early  in  the  summer,  and  it  is 
often  a  desirable  way  of  doing.  Certainly  where  the 
grower  can  get  them  from  his  own  fields  it  is  much 
better  to  plant  them  in  the  early  summer  while  young, 
than  to  wait  till  the  following  spring  to  set  the  same 
plants,  if  he  is  ready  to  plant  and  is  only  being  de- 
layed by  the  lack  of  plants.  Such  plants  become  well 
established  and  are  ready  for  a  much  more  vigorous 


48  BUSH-FRUITS 

growth  the  following  spring  than  one-year-old  plants 
just  set.  They  will  also  bear  some  fruit  without 
injury.  In  fact,  a  young  plant  taken  up  and  carefully 
reset  when  a  few  inches  high  is  to  be  preferred,  on  the 
whole,  to  a  one-year-old  plant  which  has  had  to  be 
shipped  some  distance  from  a  nursery,  and  has  been 
planted  in  the  spring  of  the  same  year. 

In  the  hot,  dry  climates  of  the  West,  some  shade  is 
an  advantage  to  these  fruits,  and  if  it  can  be  secured 
without  so  close  proximity  to  trees  that  the  moisture 
and  fertility  is  already  sapped  from  the  ground  by 
their  roots,  it  is  desirable  to  get  it.  Ordinarily  this  is 
not  an  easy  thing  to  do,  and  the  injury  is  likely  to  be 
as  great  as  the  benefit. 

POLLINATION 

The  need  of  planting  different  varieties  together  to 
insure  proper  fecundation  of  the  blossoms  has  come  to 
be  well  recognized  in  orchard  planting,  but  has  not 
been  thought  worth  considering  in  planting  bush -fruits. 
It  has  been  taken  for  granted  that  the  varieties  commonly 
grown  are  self -fertile.  Indications  point  to  the  con- 
clusion that  many  of  them  are  not  fully  so.  I  have 
observed  much  evidence  of  imperfect  pollination  with 
Early  Cluster  and  Ancient  Briton  blackberry,  Mayes 
dewberry  and  Fontenay  raspberry,  when  growing  alone. 
Others  may  be  equally  deficient.  The  Cuthbert  bears 
an  abundance  of  pollen  and  is  apparently  fully  self- 
fertile.  Its  blossoming  season  is  long  and  it  is  therefore 
an  excellent  sort  to  plant  with  other  reds. 


TILLING  49 

The  Crimson  Beauty  is  an  instance  of  a  variety 
which,  while  possessing  many  good  points,  proved  a 
practical  failure  over  the  country  at  large,  mainly  owing 
to  its  inability  to  properly  fecundate  its  own  blossoms. 

TILLAGE 

The  cultivation  of  red  raspberries  should  be  such 
that  it  will  not  only  keep  the  ground  loose  and  friable, 
thus  diminishing  evaporation  and  unlocking  plant -food, 
but  will  also  destroy  the  suckers.  To  this  end  a  culti- 
vator with  teeth  square  on  the  end  instead  of  pointed, 
or  with  a  knife  attachment,  as  explained  in  the  discus- 
sion of  tools,  is  of  great  advantage.  Of  course  this 
assumes  that  the  object  is  fruit,  and  does  not  apply  to 
the  man  who  is  growing  plants  for  sale.  In  spite  of 
the  repetition,  perhaps  attention  ought  again  to  be 
called  to  the  very  great  importance  of  frequent  cultiva- 
tion, up  to  the  time  of  ripening.  This  alone  may  easily 
add  50  per  cent  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop. 
As  already  stated,  this  is  the  best  substitute  for  irriga- 
tion, and  in  many  cases  is  nearly  equal  to  it.  Late 
tillage,  up  to  the  time  of  frost,  gives  especially  good 
results  with  the  red  raspberry,  and  no  one  need  fear 
to  keep  the  cultivator  going  until  that  time  in  most 
localities. 

PRUNING 

In  the  pruning  of  red  raspberries,  the  practice  of 
growers  is  widely  at  variance,  especially  with  regard 
to  the  summer  pruning.  A  few  years  ago  the  com- 
mon advice,  or  rather,  perhaps,  that  which  appeared 


50  BUSH-FRUITS 

most  frequently,  was  to  treat  them  the  same  as  black- 
caps, by  pinching  the  growing  canes  in  summer  and 
trimming  back  the  laterals  in  spring.  Individually, 
growers  all  over  the  country  have  been  coming  to 
doubt  the  advisability  of  this  plan,  and  to  omit  the 
summer  pruning.  Pinching  back  the  canes  in  summer 
seems  to  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  number  of 
suckers  thrown  up,  which  in  itself  is  a  disadvantage 
unless  the  plantation  is  being  run  for  purposes  of 
propagation.  Unless  pinched  low  while  still  very 
young,  the  plants  -do  not  throw  out  strong  branches, 
like  the  black -caps,  possibly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
energy  of  the  plant  is  more  readily  directed  in  the 
line  of  producing  suckers  than  in  the  line  of  develop- 
ing branches.  The  effect  of  stopping  the  cane  after 
it  has  reached  a  height  of  three  feet  or  more,  is  only 
to  force  into  growth  lateral  buds  which  might  better 
remain  dormant  until  the  following  spring.  As  a  rule, 
they  make  only  an  imperfect  development,  do  not  be- 
come well  ripened  before  growth  stops,  and  are  apt  to 
be  more  or  less  injured  by  the  following  winter.  Both 
my  own  experience  and  the  information  gathered  from 
the  experience  of  others,  lead  me  to  believe  that  the 
better  way  to  treat  the  red  raspberry  is  to  allow  it  to 
grow  unmolested  during  the  whole  season,  merely  cut- 
ting the  canes  back  to  within  three,  or  in  some  cases 
even  two  feet  of  the  ground  the  following  spring.  If 
the  canes  are  to  be  supported  by  stakes  or  trellis,  as  is 
sometimes  done  in  garden  culture,  they  may  be  left 
longer,  say  four,  or  even  five  feet.  Treated  in  this 
way,  the  canes  will  throw  out  a  sufficient  number  of 


PRUNING  RED   RASPBERRIES  51 

laterals  in  spring  to  produce  all  the  fruit  which  a  plant 
ought  to  carry.  Moreover,  these  branches  are  vigorous 
and  healthy,  and  in  better  condition  to  develop  a  fine 
crop  of  fruit  than  if  produced  the  preceding  year, 
weakened  by  the  winter  and  now  called  upon  to  throw 
out  fruit -bearing  shoots.  The  lessened  expense  of 
pruning  is  an  added  advantage  secured  by  this  method 
of  training. 

An  exception  to  this  plan  may  be  advisable  in  case 
of  young  and  vigorous  plantations,  or  an  exceptionally 
rampant -growing  variety.  Young  plants  have  not  the 
root  development  to  start  out  so  stocky  a  cane,  and 
.naturally  produce  a  more  slender  and  comparatively 
longer  growth,  so  that  allowing  the  main  canes  to 
grow  uninterruptedly,  and  cutting  them  back  to  the 
desired  height  the  following  spring,  is  likely  to  remove 
too  great  a  proportion  of  the  wood,  and  leave  only  the 
weaker  and  poorly  developed  buds  near  the  base.  For 
this  reason  there  are  some  good  growers  who  find  it 
an  advantage  to  pinch  back  the  plants  the  first  one  or 
two  years,  but  not  after  that.  Whenever  it  is  de- 
sirable to  do  this,  the  important  point  to  remember  is  to 
merely  pinch  off  the  tip  while  the  plants  are  young  and 
only  a  few  inches  high.  Six  to  eighteen  inches  is  bet- 
ter than  higher,  provided  it  is  done  when  the  plant 
reaches  that  point,  but  they  should  never  be  allowed 
to  grow  higher  and  then  be  cut  back  to  this  point.  If 
stopped  at  this  early  age,  the  main  cane  will  increase 
in  height  somewhat,  and  will  be  able  to  throw  out 
strong  and  vigorous  branches,  -forming  a  stocky,  self 
supporting  bush,  well  prepared  to  endure  the  winter 


52 


BUSH-FRUITS 


and  produce  a  good  crop  of  fruit  the  following  year. 
Such  a  bush  of  the  Cuthbert  variety  is  shown  in  Fig. 
11.  An  undesirable  form  of  training  is  shown  in 
Fig.  12. 

AUTUMN    FRUITING 

Certain  varieties  of  raspberries  possess  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  bear  fruit  in  autumn  on  wood  of  the  present 


Fig.  11.     Well  trained. 


Fig.  12.     Improperly  trained. 


season's  growth,  and  it  is  sometimes  recommended  to 
take  out  the  old  canes  in  spring  in  order  to  induce 
this  habit.  A  single  experiment  was  made  at  the  Cor- 
nell gardens  to  determine  whether  our  common  varie- 
ties would  yield  to  this  treatment.  Plants  of  Fontenay, 
Cuthbert  and  Shaffer  were  mowed  off  with  a  scythe 
in  the  spring,  before  the  young  canes  started.  The 


PICKING  53 

results  were  very  definite,  but  not  encouraging.  The 
young  canes  made  a  vigorous  growth,  but  not  a  single 
cluster  of  flowers  appeared  on  either  the  Cuthbert  or 
Shaffer  plants.  There  were  two  or  three  fine  clusters 
of  fruit  among  the.  Fontenay  plants  thus  treated,  but 
this  is  one  of  the  European  varieties,  which  are  charac- 
terized by  more  or  less  continuous  fruiting  throughout 
the  season.  Just  as  good  clusters  were  to  be  found, 
and  apparently  as  many  of  them,  where  the  plants  were 
treated  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

The  only  advantage  in  autumn  fruiting  is  the  pro- 
duction of  a  small  amount  of  fresh  fruit  for  family 
use  late  in  the  season,  but  this  trial  seems  to  show 
little  prospect  of  inducing  tardy  fruiting  by  means 
of  encouraging  a  late  seasonal  growth. 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

Red  raspberries  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  picked 
every  other  day,  for  they  deteriorate  rapidly  when  once 
they  are  ripe,  a  process  which  is  not  prevented  by  their 
being  allowed  to  hang  on  the  bushes.  Moreover,  since 
they  are  a  soft,  difficult  berry  to  ship,  at  best,  it  is 
advisable  to  start  them  on  the  way  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment.  The  longer  they  remain  after  ripening, 
the  softer,  duller  in  color  and  poorer  in  quality  they 
become.  They  are  best  marketed  in  pint  baskets. 
These  are  oblong  in  shape,  and  the  size  is  such  that 
an  ordinary  bushel  crate  will  just  hold  sixty  of  them. 
The  smaller  quantity  in  each  basket  enables  them  to 
carry  much  better  than  when  marketed  in  quarts.  Care 


54 


BUSH-FRUITS 


should  be  taken  never  to  pick  the  fruit  when  wet.  and 
to  keep  it  in  a  cool,  well  ventilated  place  until  sent  to 
market.  A  home  market  is  by  far  the  most  desirable. 
For  evaporating,  berries  may  be  batted  off  (Fig.  13; 
and  see  discussion  in  next  chapter). 


USES 


The  red  raspberry  is  essentially  a  fruit  to  be  sold 
on  the  market  fresh,  unless  the  grower  chances  to  be 


Fig.  13.    Berry  harvester.    (See  page  74.) 

located  near  a  canning  factory.  There  is  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  evaporating  it,  but  the  shrinkage  is  so  great 
that  it  is  hard  to  secure  a  price  for  the  dried  product 
which  is  high  enough  to  yield  a  fair  price  per  quart  of 
fresh  fruit.  A  heaping  quart  basketful  of  fruit  will 
weigh  about  four  ounces  when  dried,  varying  some- 
what with  seasons  and  other  conditions,  so  that  one 
cannot  expect  over  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  dried 


EVAPORATING    THE  REDS  55 

fruit  per  bushel  of  green  fruit.  Moreover,  the  true 
reds  dry  to  a  dull,  unattractive  color,  which  must  ever 
prove  a  hindrance  to  their  sale.  It  is  difficult  to  get 
people  to  pay  a  satisfactory  price  for  a  thing  which 
does  not  look  well.  The  Shaffer  is  one  of  the  best  va- 
rieties for  evaporating  purposes.  It  is  a  prolific,  often 
an  enormous  yielder.  It  is  intermediate  between  the 
red  and  black,  rich  and  of  good  flavor.  Moreover, 
when  dried  it  has  a  much  more  attractive  appearance 
than  the  Cuthbert.  There  is,  therefore,  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  cultivation  of  this  for  evaporating  pur- 
poses might  pay,  though  probably  not  so  well  as  the 
cultivation  of  black -caps.  Certain  it  is  that,  whatever 
the  variety,  if  the  market  should  become  glutted  at  any 
time  during  the  season,  and  facilities  for  evaporating 
are  at  hand,  it  should  be  done  by  all  means,  rather 
than  let  them  waste.  The  dried  fruit  is  sure  to  find  a 
market,  and  probably  at  a  price  which  will  yield  a 
fair  return  for  the  crop.  If  the  fresh  fruit  will  sell 
at  reasonable  prices  the  questi'on  of  evaporating  need 
never  be  considered.  The  conditions  hardly  warrant 
planting  them  for  evaporating  alone  ;  certainly  none 
of  the  true  reds,  though  Shaffer  may  pay. 

DURATION    OF    PLANTATIONS 

Like  the  blackberries,  red  raspberries  can  be  made 
to  continue  producing  from  the  same  plantation  for  a 
number  of  years,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  ever 
pays  to  do  this.  There  are  so  many  causes  tending  to 
weaken  the  plants,  and  render  them  less  productive 


56  BUSH-FRUITS 

as  they  grow  older,  such  as  disease,  reduced  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil,  over -crowding,  etc.,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  them  to  yield  a  good  return  after 
having  borne  two  or  three  crops.  Especially  are  the 
various  diseases  which  affect  cultivated  crops  coming 
to  be  such  an  important  factor  that  it  is  necessary 
to  adopt  every  feasible  precaution  to  prevent  their 
ravages.  Not  only  .are  the  older  plantations  likely  to 
become  diseased  so  as  to  greatly  lessen  their  own  pro- 
ductiveness, but  at  the  same  time  they  become  most 
effective  breeding  grounds  for  the  spread  of  these  dis- 
eases, and  injurious  insects  as  well,  to  new  and 
healthier  fields. 

Moreover,  the  continuous  production  of  suckers  is 
likely  to  fill  the  rows  or  hills  so  full  of  plants  in  a  few 
years  that  they  are  of  necessity  small  and  weak  unless 
vigorously  thinned  out.  Even  that  does  not  fully  over- 
come the  difficulty.  The  rows  are  almost  sure  to  be- 
come filled  with  weeds,  and  grass  as  well,  and  cannot 
be  kept  clean  without  too  great  expense.  It  is  on  the 
whole,  therefore,  bette,-  to  get  three  or  four  good  crops, 
then  plow  up  the  field  and  depend  upon  another  plan- 
tation ready  for  the  purpose.  The  fruit  will  be  larger, 
hence  more  marketable,  and  the  results  more  satisfac- 
tory in  every  way. 

Although  persistent,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  rid  a 
field  of  the  plants  by  the  same  treatment  recommended 
for  the  blackberry.  They  may  continue  to  appear  for 
some  time,  but  they  are  not  so  strong  but  that  they  may 
be  easily  controlled  in  whatever  way  the  land  is  used 
afterward. 


WINTER  INJURY  57 

HARDINESS 

As  a  rule  the  reds  do  not  equal  the  black -caps  in 
hardiness,  though  some  varieties  are  seldom  injured  in 
favorable  locations  in  the  middle  latitude  of  the  United 
States.  It  seems  probable  that  the  lack  of  hardiness 
as  frequently  comes  from  want  of  ability  in  the  leaves 
to  endure  the  hot  suns  of  summer  as  from  lack  of  ability 
in  the  canes  to  endure  the  cold  of  winter.  If  by  any 
means  the  function  of  the  foliage  during  the  growing 
season  becomes  impaired,  the  vitality  of  the  plant  is 
lessened,  and  it  goes  into  winter  poorly  prepared  to 
meet  the  conditions  laid  upon  it  during  that  period. 
Hence  it  seems  but  reasonable  that  lack  of  hardiness 
or  winter -killing  may  result  from  insect  or  fungous 
injury  inflicted  during  summer,  as  well  as  from  un- 
favorable climatic-  conditions.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  small,  late -growing  canes  generally  stand  the 
winter  better  than  the  more  vigorous  ones  of  the  whole 
season's  growth.  Cuthbert  canes  produced  at  the  Cor- 
nell gardens,  after  cutting  away  all  young  canes  July 
6,  1892,  came  through  the  winter  in  better  condition 
than  the  earlier,  undisturbed  canes  in  the  other  part  of 
the  same  row.  These  later  canes  were  alive  to  the  tip 
in  spring,  and  at  the  time  the  leaves  were  opening 
they  were  more  uniformly  green  and  farther  advanced 
than  the  others.  They  produced  fine  fruit  J  but  since 
they  are  smaller  than  canes  of  the  full  season's  growth, 
the  yield  might  be  less.  One  Iowa  grower  reports 
that  in  two  seasons7  trial,  blackberry  canes  produced 
after  pulling  up  all  young  shoots  about  the  last  of 


58  BUSH-FRUITS 

June,  were  loaded  with  fine  berries,  while  older  canes 
alongside  had  but  few.  Although  such  canes  are  later 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  they  are  immature. 
Starting  later,  when  the  conditions  do  not  favor  so 
vigorous  a  growth,  it  is  altogether  probable  that  the 
wood  is  firmer  and  its  vitality  greater  at  the  beginning 
of  winter  than  that  of  the  earlier  canes. 

YIELDS 

The  yield  of  red  raspberries  is  less,  as  a  rule,  than 
that  of  any  other  member  of  the  genus,  unless  it  be  the 
dewberries,  the  yield  of  which  is  more  or  less  a  question 
of  locality.  The  average  yield  of  reds,  as  derived  from 
the  replies  of  fifty -six  growers,  is  about  sixty -nine 
bushels  per  acre.  A  few  growers  place  the  estimated 
yield  higher  than  that  of  black -caps,  but  this  is  excep- 
tional. Moreover,  this  smaller  yield  is  distributed  over 
a  longer  ripening  period,  and  is  for  that  reason  more 
expensive  to  gather  and  market,  so  that  the  reds  ought 
always  to  bring  one  or  two  cents  more  per  quart  than 
the  black- caps,  in  order  to  prove  equally  profitable. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  average  yield  can  be 
largely  increased  by  good  care  and  by  abandoning  the 
plantations  sooner,  for  it  is  the  old  fields  which  give 
the  poor  returns. 
• 

NORMAL    PROFITS 

Red  raspberries  are  nearly  always  in  good  demand. 
The  grower  who  lives  near  a  small  town,  where  there 
is  not  too  much  competition,  and  who  can  depend 


THE   HYBRID   REDS  59 

upon  getting  from  eight  to  twelve  cents  a  quart  for 
his  crop,  will  have  no  trouble  in  making  red  raspber- 
ries pay.  There  is  generally  less  likelihood  of  glut- 
ting the  markets  with  reds  than  with  blacks,  but 
their  smaller  yield  and  poorer  shipping  qualities  tend 
to  render  their  profitableness  uncertain  if  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  a  city  market  at  any  distance  from  home 
must  be  depended  on. 

The  entire  cost  of  cultivation,  rent  of  land,  fertil- 
izers, etc.,  need  never  exceed  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 
The  cost  of  picking  and  marketing  will  range  from 
two  to  four  cents  per  quart,  usually,  so  that  if  the 
crop  can  be  made  to  net  five  cents  a  quart  after  de- 
ducting cost  of  picking  and  marketing,  there  will  still 
be  left  a  profit  of  about  sixty  dollars  per  acre,  with 
the  average  yield  mentioned  above.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  this  is  a  very  conservative  estimate,  and  by 
no  means  equal  to  the  results  often  obtained. 

NOTE     ON    THE    HYBRID     REDS 

There  are  really  two  classes  of  plants  embraced  in 
this  hybrid  group.  One  of  these  propagates  naturally 
almost  wholly  by  tips,  like  the  black -caps.  This  is  the 
true  Rubus  neglectus,  or  Purple  Cane  type,  and  it  is  to 
this  class  that  the  old  Purple  Cane,  Shaffer,  Colum- 
bian and  others  belong.  These  demand  the  same 
methods  of  planting,  pruning  and  care  as  that  given 
to  the  black -caps.  The  other  class  propagates  chiefly 
by  suckers,  but  can  be  made  to  root  from  the  tips 
with  proper  care.  These  are  essentially  red  raspber- 


60  BUSH-FRUITS 

ries  in  character,  and  demand  the  same  care  and 
treatment  as  red  raspberries.  Indeed,  some  of  them 
approach  so  closely  to  red  raspberries  that  a  doubt 
arises  as  to  whether  they  ought  not  to  be  classed  with 
the  reds,  instead  of  with  Rubus  neglectus.  To  this 
class  belong  Philadelphia,  Reliance  and  a  few  others. 
Caroline  is  a  pinkish  yellow  berry,  belonging  to  this 
category,  and  thought  to  be  a  seedling  of  Brinckle's 
Orange,  fertilized  by  some  cap  variety. 

Many  of  these  are  excellent  for  the  home  garden, 
owing  to  their  great  productiveness  and  rich  flavor. 
The  great  objection  to  them  as  a  market  fruit  is  their 
dull,  unattractive  color  and  their  poor  carrying  qual- 
ity. Some  persons  who  cultivate  the  Shaffer  for  mar- 
ket overcome  this  difficulty,  in  part,  by  picking  them 
before  they  are  fully  ripe  and  while  they  are  yet 
red.  At  this  time  they  carry  better  and  look  better 
in  market.  In  a  home  market,  however,  there  is  but 
little  difficulty  in  selling  the  Shaffer  when  fully  ripe, 
dark  as  it  is,  if  people  come  to  know  what  it  is  and 
have  once  tried  it.  It  is  one  of  the  best  raspberries 
grown  for  canning  purposes.  It  combines  something 
of  the  flavor  of  both  the  reds  and  blacks,  and  the 
color  after  cooking  is  no  longer  unattractive. 


CHAPTER    III 

SLACK    EASPBERRIES 

The  black -cap  raspberries  are  more  homogeneous 
in  character  than  the  red  varieties.  They,  are  all  true 
American  fruits,  being  developments  from  the  common 
wild  black  raspberries. 

SOIL    FOR    BLACK -CAPS 

Black -caps  succeed  on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but 
thrive  best  on  one  which  is  rich,  deep,  moist  and  well 
drained.  Sandy  or  clay  loams  are  preferable.  A  loca- 
tion where  water  stands  for  any  length  of  time  is  never 
permissible.  Let  the  grower  who  has  ever  gathered 
wild  black  raspberries  recall  how  luxuriantly  they 
grow  in  newly- cleared  land,  abounding  in  leaf -mold, 
and  take  a  lesson  therefrom.  Virgin  soil  filled  with 
leaf -mold  is  no  longer  available,  but  it  is  possible  to 
greatly  add  to  the  humus  in  the  soil  which  is  to  be 
used,  thereby  approximating  the  conditions  found  in 
the  forest  clearing.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
humus  greatly  increases  the  drought -resisting  quality 
of  soils,  a  point  of  the  utmost  importance  in  berry- 
growing.  A  soil  rich  in  humus  will  do  much  toward 
supplying  the  elements  of  plant-food  needed,  by 
rendering  available  plant -food  which  is  already  in  the 
soil  and  preventing  its  loss.  In  Kansas,  the  uplands 

(61) 


62  BUSH-FRUITS 

having  a  black  loam  with  clay  subsoil,  are  reported 
to  give  the  best  results.  Stony  soils  may  yield  just 
as  good  crops,  but  are  even  more  expensive  to  work 
than  when  used  for  crops  for  which  the  ground  is 
plowed  every  year. 

LOCATION 

Stronger  plants  and  larger  fruit  can  be  obtained 
from  the  strong,  moist  soils  of  valleys  and  bottom- 
lands. Such  fruit  is  not  equal  in  flavor,  however,  to 
that  of  the  higher  lands,  and  the  plants  are  more 
likely  to  be  injured  by  the  winters  or  by  late  spring 
frosts.  If  close  to  a  large  body  of  water,  the  latter 
objection  is  largely  obviated.  As  is  true  with  all  the 
other  berries,  a  cool,  northern  exposure,  which  will 
suffer  as  little  as  possible  from  drought  and  hot  suns, 
is  to  be  preferred,  though  by  no  means  necessary. 
A  closely  bounded  basin  is  always  to  be  avoided,  for 
in  such  a  situation  the  extremes  of  temperature  are 
likely  to  be  much  greater.  In  the  bright  days  of 
summer  the  sun  may  pour  its  rays  into  such  a  place 
until  the  atmosphere,  owing  to  lack  of  circulation, 
becomes  abnormally  hot.  At  night,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  cold  air  will  settle  into  such  a  position, 
greatly  increasing  the  danger  of  untimely  frosts,  or 
of  injury  from  excessive  cold.  A  steep  hillside  is 
always  objectionable,  both  from  the  difficulty  of  cul- 
tivation and  from  the  loss  of  fertility  and  danger  to 
the  plants  which  may  come  from  excessive  washing 
of  the"  soil. 


HOW    TO   APPLY   PLANT -FOOD  63 

FERTILIZERS 

Stable -manure  is  by  far  the  most  popular  fertilizer 
among  growers.  It  is  particularly  applicable  to  black- 
caps, since  they  demand  heavier  feeding  than  red  rasp- 
berries or  blackberries  and  are  less  likely  to  respond  to 
an  over -supply  by  making  too  vigorous  growth,  with 
consequent  lack  of  hardiness  and  diminished  fruitful- 
ness.  In  replies  to  questions  sent  to  growers,  asking 
what  fertilizer  had  been  found  most  satisfactory,  stable- 
manure  was  mentioned  forty -four  times.  Wood -ashes 
ranked  next,  being  mentioned  twenty-four  times.  This 
strong  preponderance  of  opinion  in  favor  of  stable- 
manure  may  indicate  that  it  possesses  greater  value 
than  its  comparative  merits  warrant.  This  is  the  one 
material  which  nearly  every  grower  is  likely  to  have 
used,  and  when  properly  applied  it  is  sure  to  give  satis- 
faction. It  does  not  follow  that  its  application  is  always 
the  most  economical  and  satisfactory  thing  to  do. 

One  wide-awake  grower  replied  that  a  Planet  Jr. 
cultivator  proved  the  best  fertilizer  with  him.  This  is 
simply  a  modified  version  of  the  old  adage  that  "tillage 
is  manure,"  the  full  truth  of  which  most  of  us  have  not 
yet  come  to  appreciate.  Such  plants  as  raspberries  do 
not  make  heavy  drafts  upon  the  soil.  If  therefore  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  soil  can  be  kept  right  and  the 
chemical  activities  can  be  augmented,  enough  plant-food 
can  be,  unlocked  from  most  soils  to  supply  their  needs. 
Tillage  does  both  of  these  and  also  assists  to  conserve 
moisture,  without  which  no  plant-food  can  be  available, 
since  it  can  only  be  used  by  the  plant  when  in  solution, 


64  B  USH  -  FR  UITS 

The  quality  of  ordinary  stable -manure  is  very  uncer- 
tain, owing  to  differences  in  methods  of  feeding  and  in 
treatment  which  the  manure  receives  after  it  is  made. 
It  commonly  contains  an  excess  of  nitrogen.  This, 
though  by  far  the  most  expensive  element  of  plant 
fertility,  and  one  easily  lost  by  leaching  and  evaporation, 
is  required  in  only  limited  quantities  in  the  production 
of  fruit.  The  chances  are,  therefore,  that  in  the  use 
of  large  quantities  of  stable -manure  this  expensive 
element  is  wasted.  An  excess  of  organic  nitrogen  may 
also  help  to  deplete  the  soil  of  potash.  When  changed 
to  nitric  acid  it  combines  with  potash  and  other  bases 
which  leach  away  if  not  taken  up  by  plants,  thus  deplet- 
ing the  soil  of  basic  ingredients.  The  use  of  less 
manure,  supplemented  with  chemicals  containing  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  is  often  wiser. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  raspberries  published 
from  Washington*  a  crop  of  one  hundred  bushels  of 
raspberries  would  remove  only  about  six  pounds  of  ni- 
trogen, twenty  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  fourteen 
pounds  of  potash  from  the  soil.  This  being  true,  the 
importance  of  fertilizers  may  be  easily  overestimated. 
Fifty  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  slightly  more  of  dried 
blood,  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
and  fifty  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  would  more  than 
supply  this  need.  The  unavoidable  losses  in  the  soil 
make  it  necessary  to  furnish  more  than  the  plants  take 
away  ;  yet  this  may  serve  as  a  suggestion  regarding 
the  possible  demands.  The  individual  qualities  of  the 

*Year-Book,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1895:   568, 


GROWING    THE   PLANTS  65 

soil   may  modify  the  validity   of   calculations   of   this 
sort,  since  soils  differ  so  much. 

One  factor  in  soil -fertility  is  not  supplied  by  chemi- 
cals. That  factor  is  humus,  a  more  important  one 
than  the  others.  In  this  stable -manure  has  the  advan- 
tage, but  the  same  results  may  be  obtained  by  the 
judicious  use  of  green -crops  before  planting  and  of 
cover -crops  afterward. 

PROPAGATION 

There  is  practically  but  one  way  of  propagating 
black -caps,  and  that  is  by  means  of  tips.  Plants  can 
be  grown  from  root  cuttings  or  by  burying  the  entire 
cane  and  cutting  it  in  pieces  after  roots  are  thrown 
out,  but  these  methods  are  so  seldom  used  that  there 
is  little  need  of  taking  them  into  consideration.  These 
tips  take  root  naturally,  unaided,  in  sod  ground,  for 
they  thread  their  way  amongst  the  grass  roots,  and 
are  thus  held  in  place  until  established.  In  culti- 
vated ground  they  are  blown  about  by  the  wind,  and 
do  not  have  an  opportunity  of  becoming  fastened  in 
the  soil.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  put  the  tips 
down  and  cover  them,  in  order  to  secure  any  consider- 
able number  of  plants.  This  may  be  done  with  a  hoe, 
spade  or  any  other  convenient  tool.  It  is  better  to 
point  the  tip  well  downward,  so  that  the  end  is  the 
deepest  part  when  covered.  This  will  produce  a  plant 
of  much  better  shape  than  if  the  tip  is  put  in  nearly 
horizontal  and  covered  for  a  considerable  length. 

A  tool    hung    somewhat    like  an   adze,  but  with  a 


66  BUSH-FRUITS 

narrower  blade,  about  as  heavy  as  a  good -sized  ham- 
mer, and  which  can  be  readily  swung  in  one  hand, 
will  prove  convenient.  Such  a  device  is  largely  used 
in  planting  strawberries  by  L.  J.  Farmer,  of  Pulaski, 
N.  Y.,  who  was  the  first,  so  far  as  I  know,  to  suggest 
it.  Perhaps  an  equally  serviceable  implement  might 
be  made  on  the  plan  of  a  spade,  using  a  shovel  or 
spade  handle,  which  could  be  conveniently  grasped 
in  the  hand,  combined  with  a  strong,  heavy  blade 
about  two  inches  wide  and  six  or  eight  inches  long. 
This  could  be  easily  thrust  into  the  soil  with  one  hand, 
moved  to  one  side,  while  the  tip  is  inserted,  then  re- 
moved, and  thrust  in  again  at  the  side  to  firm  the  soil 
against  the  tip.  A  narrow  transplanting  trowel,  like 
those  used  by  nurserymen  in  setting  root  grafts,  would 
answer  equally  well,  except  for  the  shortness  of  the 
handle,  and  consequent  stooping  required.  A  cross- 
bar on  which  to  put  the  foot,  if  necessary  in  hard 
ground,  is  an  advantage.  Either  of  the  tools  mentioned 
can  be  readily  made  with  the  aid  of  a  blacksmith. 

The  tips  should  not  be  covered  until  they  begin  to 
thicken  and  assume  a  leafless  "snake-like"  appearance, 
which  will  generally  be  from  the  middle  of  August  on. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  propagate  plants  from 
young  plantations,  if  possible.  They  not  only  root  more 
readily  and  freely  when  young,  but  more  healthy  and 
vigorous  plants  are  produced,  with  less  likelihood  of 
the  transmission  of  disease.  There  are  those  who  argue 
that  since  black -caps  have  always  been  propagated 
largely  from  bearing  plantations  without  deterioration, 
there  is  no  ground  for  believing  that  better  plants 


SETTING   THE   PLANTS  67 

are  produced  from  young  plantations.  This  is  hardly 
sufficient  evidence  for  the  statement,  for  there  is  no 
doubt  that  varieties  do  deteriorate  in  cultivation,  and 
since  this  mode  of  propagation  is  nothing  more  than  a 
sub -division  of  the  same  individual,  the  young  plant 
cannot  fail  to  carry  with  it  to  a  large  degree  the 
character  of  the  old  one.  Propagating  from  old  plan- 
tations is  especially  objectionable  if  the  plants  are 
affected  with  anthracnose,  or  any  other  fungous  dis- 
ease, as  so  many  old  plantations  are  likely  to  be. 

PLANTING 

Spring  planting  is  always  to  be  preferred  for 
black -caps;  yet,  if  for  any  reason  it  is  desirable  to 
secure  the  plants  in  the  fall,  a  very  good  method  is 
to  plant  them  in  shallow  furrows  and  mulch  well 
through  the  winter,  leaving  them  in  this  position  un- 
til the  young  shoots  have  made  a  growth  of  several 
inches  in  spring;  then  set  in  their  permanent  place. 
This  insures  the  weeding  out  of  any  poor  plants  and 
secures  a  perfect  stand  in  the  field.  Plant  deep ; 
careful  growers  who  have  given  attention  to  this 
point  have  satisfied  themselves  that  3  to  4  inches  is 
none  too  deep  to  give  best  results.  The  plants  should 
be  set  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  covered  lightly 
at  first,  gradually  filling  up  the  furrow  as  growth  pro- 
gresses. Plants  thus  set  appear  to  stand  drought 
better,  and  there  is  less  trouble  with  the  canes  blow- 
ing down  than  when  planted  shallow.  In  the  begin- 
ning they  may  make  a  less  even  and  vigorous  start 


68  BUSH-FRUITS 

than  those  planted  shallower,  for  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  furrow  in  early  spring  is  of  necessity  a  less 
favorable  position  for  the  growth  of  a  young  and 
tender  plant  than  one  nearer  the  level  of  the  surface. 
Deep  planting  will  not  prove  satisfactory  where  the 
subsoil  is  high  and  hard. 

One  point  in  connection  with  planting  which 
should  not  be  neglected  is  pruning  back  the  plants 
closely  when  set.  Experienced  growers  rarely  neglect 
this,  but  in  home  gardens,  at  least,  plants  are  often 
seen  where  long  canes  are  left,  apparently  with  the 
idea  of  getting  fruit  at  once.  Any  fruit  obtained  the 
first  year,  however,  is  at  the  expense  of  the  growth 
and  vitality  of  the  plant,  and  will  be  charged  up 
against  ensuing  crops  at  much  more  than  compound 
interest.  Plants  which  are  not  cut  back  nearly  to  the 
crown  when  set  do  not  readily  throw  up  canes  from 
the  root,  but  branch  out  from  the  old  stalk.  Especial 
care  should  be  taken  to  cut  away  the  whole  of  the 
old  canes  if  they  show  any  spots  of  anthracnose.  There 
is  every  advantage  in  keeping  rid  of  such  diseases  and 
enemies  just  as  far  as  possible,  rather  than  allowing 
them  to  first  become  destructive  and  then  attempting 
to  fight  them.  If  a  large  proportion  of  these  tips 
have  the  anthracnose  spots  when  planted,  the  disease 
is  transferred  and  reset  with  as  much  certainty  and 
under  as  favorable  conditions  for  growth  as  are  the 
plants  themselves,  unless  removed  and  destroyed. 
Simply  to  cut  off  the  tips  and  leave  them  lying  on 
the  ground  where  the  new  planting  is  done,  is  to 
miss  entirely  the  end  sought.  These  fungi  are  plants 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


DISTANCE    OF    PLANTING  69 

just  as  truly  as  are  the  ones  upon  which  they  live, 
and  their  seeds  (spores)  are  just  as  certain  to  germi- 
nate and  grow  if  given  the  proper  conditions. 

If  black  -cap  raspberries  are  to  be  planted  in  rows, 
three  feet  in  the  row,  with  rows  six  feet  apart,  will 
be  found  satisfactory  distances.  Some  prefer  rows 
seven  feet  apart,  and  for  very  strong  -growing  varie- 
ties this  is  no  doubt  better.  If  in  hills,  they  should 
be  not  less  than  five  feet  apart  each  way,  which  may 
do  for  weak  and  slender  -growing  varieties,  but  as  a 
rule  six  feet  is  much  better.  Black  -caps  are  more 
easily  kept  in  good  condition  in  rows  than  red  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries,  but  there  is  the  intermediate 
space  between  the  plants  to  be  kept  clean  by  hand, 
so  that  it  is  unquestionably  more  expensive  to  care 
for  an  acre  thus  planted  than  when  in  hills  far 
enough  apart-  to  admit  of  horse  cultivation  both  ways. 
Larger  and  finer  fruit  can  also  be  obtained  from 
hills  farther  apart,  with  thorough  cultivation  on  all 
sides.  The  only  question  is  the  yield,  and  those  who 
have  tried  it  most  thoroughly  are  most  confident  that 
the  yield  is  fully  as  good  in  hills  as  in  rows. 

TILLAGE 

The  importance  of  frequent,  thorough  cultivation 
has  been  so  strongly  urged  in  connection  with  each  of 
the  other  fruits  that  a  repetition  is  uncalled  for  here, 
although  just  as  applicable  to  this  as  to  all  the  others. 
Since  there  are  no  suckers  to  be  cut  out  in  black  -caps, 
it  matters  less  what  the  style  of  the  cultivator  is,  if  it 


70  BUSH-FRUITS 

only  loosens  the  ground  thoroughly  and  leaves  it  fine 
and  mellow.  Some  growers  use  a  plow  at  the  first  cul- 
tivation, and  perhaps  once  later  in  the  season.  On  the 
whole,  this  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  not  only 
disturbs  and  injures  the  roots,  but  it  leaves  the  ground 
in  undesirable  shape.  If  the  furrows  are  turned  from 
the  rows  with  a  ridge  in  the  center,  the  two  furrows 
next  the  bushes  leave  the  roots  more  or  less  exposed, 
which  is  undesirable.  If  the  furrows  are  turned  to- 
ward the  rows  this  leaves  a  ridge,  with  more  or  less  of 
a  harbor  for  insects  about  the  plants  where  the  furrows 
are  thrown  together.  If  cultivation  is  begun  promptly 
in  spring,  before  the  ground  gets  hardened,  there  is  no 
necessity  for  plowing,  for  the  soil  will  work  up  readily 
with  any  good  cultivator.  This  keeps  the  ground  in 
much  better  shape,  both  for  work  among  the  bushes, 
and  for  the  satisfactory  growth  of  the  bushes  them- 
selves. 

PRUNING 

Young  black  raspberry  canes  should  be  cut  back  to 
cause  them  to  branch  and  become  as  nearly  self-sup- 
porting as  possible.  One  point,  already  mentioned, 
should  be  again  emphasized,  and  that  is  that  the  young 
shoots  should  be  nipped  back  low,  when  they  reach  the 
desired  height,  not  allowing  them  to  get  considerably 
higher  and  then  cutting  back  to  the  height  required. 
If  pinched  low,  the  plant  will  at  once  throw  out  strong 
and  vigorous  branches  near  the  ground,  making  a  well- 
balanced,  self-supporting  bush.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
it  is  allowed  to  grow  higher  and  is  then  cut  back,  only 


SUMMER    PRUNING  71 

weak  buds  are  left,  and  the  result  is  that  they  do  not 
develop  so  rapidly  ;  only  three  or  four  of  the  upper 
ones  start  at  all,  producing  a  topheavy  and  unsatis- 
factory plant.  Sheep  shears  are  very  convenient  for 
this  summer  pruning,  or  it  may  be  quickly  done  by 
merely  pinching  out  the  tip  with  the  thumb  and  finger. 
In  a  young  plantation,  where  the  old  canes  do  not  in- 
terfere, a  large  knife,  sharpened  on  both  edges,  is  prob- 
ably more  convenient  than  either.  With  older  bushes, 
the  cutting  should  be  done  at  a  point  lower  than  the 
top  of  the  old  bushes,  so  that  a  knife  is  not  likely  to 
work  so  well.  With  a  knife  in  one  hand  and  shears  in 
the  other,  the  workman  can  meet  any  condition  quickly. 
Theoretically,  a  smooth,  slanting  cut  would  appear  to 
be  better  than  breaking  them  off  with  the  thumb  and 
finger,  leaving  an  irregular,  ragged  end.  An  experi- 
ment to  test  this,  however,  proved  that  it  makes  no 
difference,  for  the  canes  nearly  always  die  back  to  the 
first  bud  in  either  case. 

One  clipping  is  sufficient,  although  it  is  necessary  to 
go  over  the  plantation  two  or  three  times,  for  the 
shoots  do  not  all  reach  the  desired  height  at  once. 
Eighteen  to  twenty -four  inches  is  about  the  height  at 
which  to  clip  the  canes,  if  done  when  they  reach  that 
height.  If  allowed  to  grow  too  high  before  clipping, 
they  should  not  be  cut  back  quite  so  close.  Clipping 
the  laterals  after  they  have  grown  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches,  to  make  them  branch  again,  has  been  sometimes 
recommended,  but  there  is  little,  if  any,  advantage  in 
it,  while  it  makes  an  added  expense  in  summer,  and 
also  in  the  spring  pruning.  It  also  results  in  produc- 


72  BUSH-FRUITS 

ing  a  mass  of  small  and  poorly -developed  laterals, 
many  of  which  are  winter -killed.  It  is  much  better 
after  pinching  the  main  cane  to  let  them  alone  until  the 
following  spring,  when  they  should  be  cut  back  to 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length. 

Now  and  then  a  grower  is  heard  from  who  depre- 
cates all  pruning  as  contrary  to  nature,  and,  therefore, 
argues  that  plants  should  be  allowed  to  grow  entirely  at 
their  own  sweet  will.  One  recent  writer  in  this  line 
brings  forth,  in  proof  of  his  argument,  the  statement 
that  he  never  takes  less  than  ten  crops  of  fruit  from 
a  plantation,  and  even  then  the  canes  are  stronger  than 
those  of  many  five -year -old  plantations  he  has  seen. 
This  is,  no  doubt,  perfectly  true,  for  a  little  later  he 
states  that  he  would  be  satisfied  with  a  yield  much 
below  that  given  as  the  average  estimate  of  a  large 
number  of  growers.  A  machine  which  does  only  half 
work  ought  to  last  longer,  and  so  with  a  raspberry 
plant.  But  why  continue  to  care  for  a  plantation 
year  after  year  by  a  system  of  culture  which  returns 
a  yield  much  below  that  easily  obtained,  simply  be- 
cause the  plants  last  longer  thereby?  Why  not  rather 
force  the  plants  to  do  their  best,  and  when  they  fail 
let  them  go,  thereby  securing  better  fruits,  better 
yields,  and  consequently  better  profits? 

Not  more  than  five  young  canes  to  the  hill  should 
be  left  to  develop,  and  three  is  probably  even  better. 
Indeed,  were  it  not  for  the  liability  of  accidents  to  a 
single  cane,  it  is  quite  possible  that  we  might  just  as 
well  get  all  our  fruit  from  one,  if  given  the  whole 
strength  of  the  root  throughout  the  season.  Samuel 


REMOVING    THE    CANES  73 

Miller,    of    Missouri,    reports    repeatedly    getting    two 
quarts  in  a  season  from  single   canes. 

When  the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  cut  out  all  old 
canes,  gather  and  burn  them,  to  destroy  all  insects 
and  fungi  harboring  thereon.  The  work  is  easier  done 
at  that  time  than  at  any  other,  and  it  gives  a  good 
opportunity  for  thoroughly  cultivating  and  cleaning 
out  the  plantation.  The  argument  that  the  old  canes 
serve  to  protect  the  younger  ones  during  the  winter, 
and,  therefore,  should  be  left  till  spring,  has  little 
weight.  Whatever  protection  there  may  be  is  un- 
doubtedly fully  offset  by  the  injuries  due  to  whip- 
ping together  and  consequent  wounding  in  windy 
weather. 

When  it  has  been  decided  to  discontinue  a  planta- 
tion, it  will  be  found  an  advantage  to  the  bearing 
canes  to  go  through  the  field  and  pull  or  break  away 
all  the  young  shoots  about  blossoming  time.  This 
has  a  slight  tendency  to  hasten  the  ripening,  and  may 
enable  the  plants  to  carry  the  fruit  through  in  better 
shape  and  increase  the  yield  considerably,  especially  in 
a  dry  season,  when  every  drop  of  water  that  can  pos- 
sibly be  obtained  from  the  soil  is  needed  by  the  fruit 
itself. 

There  is  always  a  temptation  to  leave  too  much 
wood  and  allow  the  plants  to  overbear  the  first  year 
after  setting.  They  are  but  partially  developed  at 
that  time,  and  should  only  be  allowed  to  produce  a 
partial  crop.  The  canes  are  usually  long  and  strag- 
gling, and  need  to  be  severely  cut  back.  If  left  long 
they  may  produce  a  comparatively  heavy  crop,  but  it 


74  BUSH-FRUITS 

will  always  be  at  the  expense  of  vigor  and  future 
productiveness.  In  fact,  a  plantation  may  be  practi- 
cally ruined  by  this  first  injudicious  treatment. 

HARVESTING 

Gathering  the  fruit  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome 
details  connected  with  berry -growing  of  all  kinds,  and 
the  man  who  does  not  live  close  to  a  town  where  plenty 
of  pickers  can  be  readily  had  is  practically  debarred 
from  entering  any  line  of  it  where  hand-picking  must 
be  employed.  Formerly  it  was  the  same,  whether 
growing  the  fruit  to  be  sold  fresh  in  the  market,  or 
for  drying.  But  the  advent  of  the  harvester  has  made 
it  possible  to  grow  and  evaporate  raspberries  without 
the  annoyance  of  assuming  command  of  a  small  army 
of  pickers.  This  opens  the  way  to  any  farmer,  for 
taking  up  this  industry,  no  matter  how  remote  his 
farm  may  be  from  towns  or  railways,  and  it  is  in 
this  fact  alone  that  the  chief  value  of  the  method  lies, 
for  many  growers  who  are  so  situated  that  they  can 
easily  get  pickers  in  abundance  still  prefer  to  have  the 
fruit  picked  by  hand. 

This  harvester  is  a  simple  affair  (Fig.  13,  page  54), 
consisting  of  a  canvas  tray  some  three  feet  square,  there 
being  only  enough  wood  about  it  to  form  a  frame -work 
and  enable  it  to  be  moved  about.  Under  the  corner 
which  rests  on  the  ground,  there  is  a  sort  of  shoe  of 
wood,  enabling  it  to  be  slid  along  from  bush  to  bush 
easily.  In  one  hand  the  operator  carries  a  large  wire 
hook,  with  which  the  bushes  are  drawn  over  the  canvas, 


THE    BERRY-HARVESTER  75 

or  lifted  up  if  too  low  down  and  in  the  way.  In  the 
other  hand  is  a  bat,  resembling  a  lawn -tennis  racket, 
with  which  he  knocks  off  the  ripe  berries.  This  bat 
is  merely  a  canvas -covered  loop  of  heavy  wire  fastened 
in  a  convenient  handle.  In  place  of  this,  some  use 
a  wooden  paddle,  at  the  risk  of  bruising  the  fruit 
unnecessarily.  In  gathering  by  this  method,  the  ber- 
ries are  allowed  to  become  very  ripe,  and  the  plan- 
tation is  gone  over  but  two  or  three  times  in  a  season. 
Many  dry  leaves,  some  stems  and  a  few  green  berries 
are  knocked  off  with  the  fruit,  but  the  leaves  are  no 
disadvantage,  for  they  help  to  absorb  moisture  before 
and  after  drying,  and  may  aid  in  preventing  mold  if 
the  fruit  has  to  stand  for  some  time  before  going  to 
the  evaporator.  The  leaves  are  quickly  taken  out  by 
running  the  fruit  through  a  fanning  mill  after  it  is 
dried.  Some  growers  fan  them  out  before  drying,  but 
this  has  the  disadvantage  of  bruising  and  crushing 
more  berries.  The  berries  are  usually  allowed  to  stand 
in  the  field  in  boxes  for  a  time  after  gathering,  and 
any  insects  which  may  have  fallen  in  are  likely  to 
crawl  out  and  disappear. 

Growers  who  have  had  much  experience  say  that  a 
man  will  average  eight  to  ten  bushels  a  day  with  the 
harvester,  although  much  more  can  be  gathered  in  the 
best  picking.  On  one  farm  visited,  two  men  and  two 
girls  had  gathered  thirty -one  bushels  the  day  previous 
in  ordinary  picking,  and  one  of  the  men  had  been  in 
the  field  but  part  of  the  time.  This  shows  the  first 
cost  of  gathering  to  be  less  than  half  a  cent  per  quart. 
Running  them  through  the  fanning  mill  costs  but  a 


76  BUSH-FRUITS 

trifle  ;  then  before  marketing  they  are  picked  over  by 
hand  to  remove  stems,  green  berries  and  other  litter. 
This  does  not  cost  over  one  cent  a  pound  and  is  some- 
times paid  for  by  the  pound  at  that  rate,  so  that  the 
whole  cost  may  be  placed  at  one  cent  a  quart,  as 
against  two  cents  usually  paid  for  hand-picking. 
There  are  those,  however,  who  think  that  in  the  end 
there  is  not  much  difference  in  the  expense,  whether 
gathered  with  the  harvester  or  picked  by  hand. 
Growers  who  have  had  experience  with  both  methods 
express  the  opinion  that  harvesting  yields  a  better 
quality  of  dried  fruit  than  hand-picking,  for  the  rea- 
son that,  if  picked  by  hand,  they  cannot  afford  to  look 
them  over  again  after  drying,  and  so  they  do  not  go 
to  market  in  as  clean  and  nice  condition  as  those  which 
come  from  the  harvester. 

Some  extensive  and  general  fruit-growers  find  it 
inconvenient  to  attend  to  the  matter  of  looking  over 
the  dried  product  at  the  same  time  that  other  fruits, 
which  follow  on  after  the  raspberries,  are  claiming  their 
attention,  and  for  that  reason  prefer  to  pick  a  large 
part  of  the  crop  by  hand  and  market  it  fresh,  if  they 
can  get  pickers  conveniently.  In  that  case,  they  find 
the  harvester  a  great  convenience  to  finish  up  the  last 
of  the  crop.  Every  grower  knows  how  much  dissatis- 
faction occurs  in  keeping  the  pickers  at  their  work 
after  the  berries  begin  to  get  thin.  With  the  har- 
vester, the  late  berries  can  all  be  gathered  at  one  time 
with  a  great  deal  of  satisfaction  to  all  concerned. 
This  plan  is  also  available  for  those  who  sell  their 
fruit  fresh.  The  last  of  the  crop  can  be  gathered 


DRYING    THE    FRUIT    OUTSIDE  77 

and  dried,  thus  proving  a  relief  to  the  market  and  to 
the  patience  of  the  grower  and  pickers.  This  method 
of  harvesting  was  invented  and  introduced  by  Jewett 
Benedict,  of  Dundee,  N.  Y.,  and  is  extensively  used 
by  the  berry  growers  of  that  region. 

METHODS   OF    DRYING 

Drying  Out  of  Doors. — Various  methods  of  drying 
are  employed,  the  simplest  of  which  is  to  dry  on  boards 
in  the  sun.  This  usually  takes  from  three  to  five  days, 
and  the  picture  shows  the  way  in  which  it  is  ordinarily 
done.  Platforms  or  trays  about  twelve  feet  long  and 


Fig.  14.     Drying  berries  out  of  doors. 

three  to  four  feet  wide  are  made  of  matched  boards.  A 
narrow  strip  is  nailed  around  the  edge  of  each  tray  to 
prevent  the  berries  from  rolling  off.  The  trays  rest 
upon  long  horses  made  of  scantling,  to  hold  them  at  a 
convenient  height  from  the  ground.  A  little  block  is 
tacked  across  each  corner  of  the  trays,  so  that  at  night 
or  in  case  of  a  shower  they  can  be  stacked  up  on  top  of 
each  other  and  covered  with  boards  or  canvas.  This 
is  of  necessity  a  slow  way  of  drying,  and  the  cost  of 
lumber  for  trays  to  handle  a  large  crop  would  be  an 


78 


BUSH-FRUITS 


item  of  considerable  expense.  One  of  the  chief  objec- 
tions to  the  method  is  the  large  number  of  flies 
which  it  calls  to  the  scene,  the  attentions  of  which  do 
not  tend  to  render  the  fruit  more  appetizing.  Indeed, 
those  who  are  familiar  with  the  method  are  often 
prejudiced  against  all  dried  raspberries.  Sun-dried 


Fig.  15.     Drying  berries  in  a  forcing-house. 

raspberries  are  usually  quoted  about  one  cent  a  pound 
below  evaporated  berries,  but  consumers  can  never  be 
sure  which  they  are  getting.  It  is  possible  that  these 
trays  might  be  covered  with  fly  netting,  but  this  would 
increase  the  time  needed  for  drying,  and  would  also 
not  wholly  obviate  the  difficulty,  unless  the  netting 
was  held  above  the  fruit,  for  if  laid  directly  upon 
it  the  netting  would  only  aid  the  flies.  A  single 
attempt  to  dry  blackberries  under  glass  when  covered 
with  netting  proved  such  a  failure,  inducing  so  much 
more  molding  than  without  the  netting,  that  there  is 


OTHER  METHODS  OF  DRYING          79 

much  doubt  as  to  whether  it  would  prove  satis- 
factory. 

Drying  Under  Glass. — Another  method  employed  by 
those  who  have  greenhouses  for  the  winter  forcing  of 
vegetables,  is  to  utilize  the  space  under  glass  during 
the  berry  season  for  this  purpose.  Fig.  15  is  repro- 
duced from  a  photograph  taken  in  a  forcing -house  on 
the  farm  of  J.  W.  Corbett,  near  Watkins,  N.  Y.,  in 
the  summer  of  1892,  and  is  an  excellent  illustration  of 
this  plan  of  drying.  In  this  situation  the  berries 
usually  dry  in  about  three  days  in  bright,  warm 
weather,  and  are,  of  course,  less  liable  to  injury  from 
storms  than  outside.  The  plan  is,  however,  open  to 
the  same  objection  cited  in  regard  to  outdoor  drying 
as  to  flies.  It  is  advisable  to  have  as  much  air  pass- 
ing through  the  house  as  possible,  hence  the  door 
and  ventilators  are  left  open,  but  by  using  screen 
doors  and  protecting  the  ventilators  with  netting,  most 
of  the  flies  might  be  excluded. 

Drying  with  Evaporators. — For  a  business  of  any 
considerable  extent,  by  far  the  best  way  of  drying  is 
by  means  of  some  good  evaporator.  There  are  many 
different  makes  of  these  in  market,  most  of  which  do 
good  work.  The  hot  air  machines  were  first  intro- 
duced, and  are  still  very  largely  in  use.  Later  steam 
came  to  be  used,  and  many  of  the  large  machines  are 
now  fitted  for  steam  heating.  These  being  newer,  are 
said  to  be  superior,  and  if  they  can  be  operated  in 
connection  with  a  power  plant  where  the  exhaust 
steam  can  be  utilized,  they  undoubtedly  possess  an 
advantage.  One  of  the  points  of  superiority  for  steam 


80  BUSH-FRUITS 

is  the  less  liability  to  scorching.  From  several  years7 
experience  with  a  large  hot  air  machine,  however,  I 
do  not  think  this  point  has  much  weight,  for  with 
any  reasonable  care  no  fruit  is  scorched  by  either 
method.  The  temperature  of  the  stack  should  run 
from  160°  to  180°  Fahrenheit.  One  very  essential  point 
in  any  machine,  whatever  the  make,  is  a  strong  draft 
of  air  through  the  stack.  The  amount  of  vapor  given 
off  by  a  machine  full  of  hot,  green  fruit  is  very  great, 
and  every  possible  facility  is  needed  for  carrying  it 
away.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of  fruit  which  can 
be  dried  in  a  damp,  cloudy  day  and  in  a  bright,  clear 
day  when  the  wind  is  in  the  northwest,  emphasizes  this 
point  very  strongly.  In  some  of  the  large  horizontal 
machines,  it  is  necessary  to  secure  this  draft  by  means 
of  large  fans  revolved  by  steam  power. 

With  many  of  the  machines  in  use,  the  fruit  is 
put  in  at  the  lower  end ;  the  trays  follow  one  after 
the  other,  and  can  only  be  taken  out  at  the  opposite 
end,  necessitating  a  two -story  building  if  the  evap- 
orator has  an  upright  stack.  This  plan  has  the 
advantage  of  utilizing  all  the  space  in  the  stack,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  possesses  some  decided  disad- 
vantages. All  the  trays  must  be  carried  down  stairs 
or  let  down  through  the  floor  each  time  they  are 
used,  or  carried  back  the  length  of  the  'evaporator  if  it 
is  a  horizontal  machine.  Moreover,  all  the  work  must 
be  timed  and  a  tray  put  in  just  so  often,  otherwise 
the  fruit  may  reach  the  top  too  green,  and  all  opera- 
tions must  stop  and  wait  till  it  is  dry,  or  that  on 
two  or  three  trays  must  be  put  together  and  be  sent 


COST  OF  EVAPORATING  81 

through  the  whole  length  again,  with  the  chances  that 
it  will  then  be  dried  altogether  too  much.  If  put  in  too 
slow,  or  if  the  fruit  is  not  coming  in  quite  fast  enough 
to  keep  the  business  going,  it  may  be  too  dry  when  it 
reaches  the  top  the  first  time.  This  is  an  especially 
disadvantageous  point  if  it  happens  to  be  necessary  to 
dry  different  kinds  of  fruit  which  do  not  require  the 
same  length  of  time  in  the  evaporator.  In  a  machine 
in  which  the  trays  are  carried  on  hangers  attached  to 
an  endless  chain  subject  to  the  control  of  the  operator, 
all  this  difficulty  is  obviated.  The  trays  are  put  in 
and  taken  out  at  the  same  place,  and  any  tray  can  be 
brought  around  to  the  door  and  examined  as  often  as 
desired,  and  taken  out  when  ready.  In  putting  in  fruit, 
one  tray  only  is  usually  placed  on  a  hanger  at  a  time, 
so  that  in  the  natural  course  of  the  work  every  tray 
comes  under  the  eye  of  the  "stackman"  as  often  as  it 
needs  to  be  examined. 

I  have  no  accurate  figures  as  to  the  cost  of  evaporat- 
ing, but  it  can  be  inferred  approximately  from  the  price 
which  operators  charge  other  parties  for  doing  the 
work.  In  some  sections  this  charge  is  one  cent  per 
quart,  in  others  as  low  as  two  cents  per  pound.  Two 
and  a  half  cents  per  pound  appears  to  be  a  fair  price 
for  drying  and  cleaning,  and  as  the  evaporator  owner, 
of  course,  expects  to  make  some  profit,  the  actual  cost 
must  be  somewhat  below  this.  The  yield  varies  some- 
what in  different  years,  so  that  one  cent  a  quart  may 
mean  from  three  to  four  cents  a  pound. 

The  berries  are  taken  from  the  machine  when  still  so 
soft  and  juicy  that  to  an  inexperienced  person  it  does 


82  BUSH-FRUITS 

not  seem  that  they  could  possibly  be  kept  from  spoil- 
ing. They  are  placed  on  the  floor  or  in  bins  in  a  curing 
room  somewhere  about  the  building,  and  are  shoveled 
over  every  day  for  about  three  weeks.  By  this  time 
any  excessive  moisture  will  have  evaporated,  and  the 
balance  become  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  whole 
mass,  which  is  by  that  treatment  rendered  soft  and 
spongy  so  that  it  can  be  readily  pressed  into  the  boxes 
for  shipping,  a  thing  which  could  not  be  done  if  they 
were  dried  down  hard  at  first.  The  fruit  is  of  much 
better  quality  also,  when  cured  in  this  way,  for  it  soaks 
out  more  readily,  making  a  better  product  in  every 
way. 

MARKETING 

When  sold  fresh,  black  raspberries  are  usually 
marketed  in  the  ordinary  quart  baskets.  They  hold  up 
fairly  well  in  these,  and  being  one  of  the  cheaper  ber- 
ries, this  package  meets  the  demands  of  most  markets 
well.  The  berries  would  be  more  attractive  and  handle 
better  in  pints,  if  the  market  would  warrant  it.  This 
might  be  found  advisable  for  the  first  of  the  season  in 
cases  where  a  satisfactory  price  can  still  be  maintained. 

The  dried  fruit  is  marketed  in  boxes  holding  fifty 
pounds,  or  in  barrels  which  hold  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty -five  pounds.  These  boxes  can  be  gotten  up 
at  home,  but  it  will  generally  be  found  cheaper  to  buy 
them  directly  from  box  manufacturers.  They  can  be 
had  at  the  same  price  either  in  the  knock-down  or  put 
together.  The  freight  rates  are  higher  in  the  latter  case, 
so  that  the  choice  will  depend  somewhat  upon  location. 


EVAPORATING   IN  NEW    YORK  83 

It  is  essential  that  they  be  well  built  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  insects  after  they  are  filled.  They  are  lined 
with  paper  before  the  fruit  is  put  in,  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  fold  back  neatly  from  the  top  when  opened. 
The  fruit  is  usually  sold  in  large  lots  through  com- 
mission men,  but  may  sometimes  go  direct  to  whole- 
salers and  dealers  with  advantage. 

THE   EVAPORATED   RASPBERRY  INDUSTRY 

Bailey  has  given  an  account  of  the  evaporated  rasp- 
berry industry  in  western  New  York,  in  Bulletin  100 
of  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station.  With  permission 
of  the  author,  his  account  of  the  history  of  this  indus- 
try, together  with  his  descriptions  of  the  styles  of  evap- 
orators in  most  common  use,  is  incorporated  here:* 

"Western  New  York  leads  the  world  in  the  production  of  dried 
raspberries.  Something  like  1,500  tons  of  the  evaporated  product 
are  marketed  each  year.  Of  this,  about  1,000  tons  are  produced 
in  Wayne  county,  in  which  the  towns  of  Williamson  and  Sodus, 
which  produce  nearly  or  quite  half  of  the  amount,  are  the  most 
important  centers.  Marion,  in  Wayne  county,  is  also  a  heavy 
producer  of  dried  berries.  Outside  of  Wayne  county,  the  region 
tributary  to  Dundee,  Yates  county,  is  the  most  important  center 
of  the  dried  raspberry  industry.  The  product  sold  at  Dundee  is 
probably  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons  each  year.  Many 
berries  are  also  dried  south  and  east  of  Dundee,  in  Schuyler 
county,  round  about  Watkins.  In  Niagara  county  the  industry  has 
become  established  at  Somerset,  where  about  twenty  tons  are 
produced  each  year.  There  are  also  many  persons  who  dry  rasp- 
berries in  other  parts  of  the  fruit  regions  of  western  New  York, 
and  the  industry  is  gradually  enlarging  as  people  come  to  learn 

"Consult,  also,  Corbett,  Bull.  48,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta. 


84  BUSH-FRUITS 

that  it  affords  a  means  of  making  the  grower  independent  of  the 
open  market. 

"  Yet  the  visitor  might  enquire  in  vain  for  dried  raspberries  in 
many  of  the  stores  in  this  western  New  York  country.  In  other 
words,  the  product  is  not  largely  consumed  in  this  state.  It  is 
used  mostly  west  and  northwest  of  Chicago.  Probably  four- fifths 
of  the  product  is  consumed  in  lumber  and  mining  camps,  and  on 
the  plains,  where  fresh  fruit  is  scarce.  None  of  it,  so  far  as  I 
know,  is  exported,  and  there  is  very  little,  if  any,  commercial 
dried  product  in  Europe.  C.  H.  Perkins  &  Co.,  Newark,  N.  Y., 
<  tried  the  experiment  of  exporting  some  of  these  goods  to  France 
several  years  ago,  but  shipped  only  two  or  three  cases  of  them. 
The  goods  are  still  on  hand  in  France,  with  no  disposition  to  take 
them  at  any  price. '  Easpberries  are  dried  to  an  important  extent 
in  southern  Illinois  and  in  Michigan,  and  lately  also  in  Arkansas. 
These  dried  raspberries  have  as  much  merit  in  cookery  as  the 
fresh  berries,  and  they  are  used  in  the  same  manner  in  sauces  and 
pies. 

"Wayne  county  is  the  home  of  commercial  fruit  evaporation. 
In  the  apple-growing  communities,  nearly  every  farm  has  an 
evaporator  of  one  kind  or  another.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
2,200*  evaporators  in  the  county,  and  this  estimate  is  probably 
none  too  high.  All  this  industry  is  the  product  of  the  last  twenty- 
five  years.  The  beginning  of  the  industry  seems  to  have  been  the 
introduction  of  a  little  machine  from  Ohio  (probably  the  D.  Lippy 
fruit  drier.—  Eept.  Com'.  Patents,  1865,  Hi.  378},  by  A.  D.  Shepley 
and  George  Edwards  in  1867.  The  right  to  use  this  evaporator 
was  purchased  by  Mason  L.  Rogers,  near  Williamson,  and  the 
following  year,  1868,  he  planted  five  acres  of  black  raspberries, 
with  the  expectation  of  evaporating  the  fruit — or  drying  it,  as  the 
operation  was  then  called,— and  this  began  the  evaporated  rasp- 
berry industry.  Mr.  Rogers  made  some  improvements  on  the 
machine,  and  about  1875  H.  Topping,  of  Marion,  took  up  its 
manufacture,  making  alterations  from  time  to  time.  The  direct 
descendant  of  this  old  machine  is  the  Topping  portable  evapora- 


*Statement  of  Charles  Mills,  Country  Gentleman,  April  18,  1895,  p.  308. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    INDUSTRY  85 

tor  of  the  present  day  (Fig.  18) ,  which  is  deservedly  popular  with 
beginners  and  for  family  use.  The  original  machine,  as  sold  by 
Shepley  &  Edwards,  was  made  in  two  sizes,  the  smaller  capable 
of  drying  three  bushels  of  apples  in  eight  to  ten  hours,  and  the 
larger  with  a  capacity  of  five  bushels!  This  small  beginning 
seems  incredible  when  one  compares  it  with  the  groat  establish- 
ments of  this  time,  in  which  scores  of  hands  are  employed  and 
thousands  of  bushels  are  consumed  annually. 

"The  beginning  of  the  modern  industry,  however,  and  the 
introduction  of  the  word  <  evaporated'  to  designate  the  product, 
date  from  1870,  when  Charles  Alden,  of  Newburgh,  New  York, 
patented  his  tower  evaporator.  The  decade  from  1870  to  1880  was 
prolific  in  the  invention  of  capacious  evaporators  and  accessories, 
some  of  which  determined  the  course  of  the  evaporating  industry. 
The  Williams  evaporator,  invented  by  John  Williams,  South 
Haven,  Michigan,  was  patented  in  1873.  This  was  soon  followed 
by  the  Culver  machine,  which  was  patented  after  the  death  of  its 
inventor  (Stephen  Culver,  Newark,  N.  Y.,)  in  1882,  by  his  ad- 
ministrator, Harlan  P.  Van  Dusen,  also  of  Newark.  (Filed  Sept. 
26,  1880;  patented  Oct.  3,  1882.— See  U.  S.  Gazette  of  Patents, 
xxii.  1171.)  As  early  as  1876,  Mason  L.  Rogers  *  built  and 
equipped  a  Culver  evaporator,'  as  his  son  writes  me.  John  W. 
Cassidy  patented  his  device  for  lifting  trays  in  1876.  Cassidy  was 
a  resident  of  Newark,  New  York,  but  moved  to  Petaluma,  Cali- 
fornia, where  he  resided  when  he  took  6ut  his  patents.  His 
device,  combined  with  Culver's,  is  the  leading  lifting  arrangement 
now  in  use  in  western  New  York.  Cassidy  took  out  another  patent 
in  1880  for  a  device  to  dry  fruit  by  exposing  it  alternately  to  a 
vacuum  or  partial  vacuum,  and  an  inrush  of  dehydrated  air,  but 
this  system  is  probably  unknown  in  this  state.  It  now  needed 
only  the  advent  of  a  bleaching  device  and  improved  machines  for 
paring  and  ringing  the  fruit,  to  establish  the  evaporating  business 
upon  an  enduring  basis ;  but  as  these  devices  are  not  used  in  the 
making  of  evaporated  raspberries,  they  need  not  be  further  dis- 
cussed in  this  paper. 

"1.  The  Kiln  Drier. — The  evaporators  which  are  used  in  west- 
ern New  York  may  be  arranged  in  five  categories,— the  kilns,  hori- 


86  BUSH-FRUITS 

zontal  evaporators,  towers,  steam  tray -evaporators,  and  air-blast 
evaporators.  The  kiln  is  nothing  more  than  a  slatted  floor,  under- 
neath which  hot  air  or  smoke  pipes  or  steam  pipes  are  conducted. 
The  slats  are  hard -wood,  sawed  about  seven -eighths  inch  wide  on 
top  and  a  half-inch  wide  on  the  bottom,  and  they  are  laid  so  that 
a  crack  one -fourth  inch  wide  is  left  on  the  floor.  As  the  crack  is 
wider  below,  it  does  not  clog  and  fill  up.  The  kiln  is  used  for 
curing  hops,  for  drying  the  skins  and  cores  of  apples,  and  occa- 
sionally for  drying  raspberries,  and  even  for  the  making  of  <  white 
stock,'  that  is,  the  commercial  grade  of  sliced  evaporated  apples. 
The  smokestack  from  the  furnace  usually  runs  through  the  room, 
and  beneath  the  floor,  but  not  shown  in  the  picture,  is  one  circuit 
of  a  stovepipe  carrying  hot  air.  In  some  floors  the  slats  are  close 
enough  together  to  allow  raspberries  to  be  spread  upon  it;  but 
floors  which  are  built  for  hops  or  apples  are  generally  covered  with 
muslin  when  raspberries  are  to  be  dried.  Kilns  are  generally  less 
efficient  in  the  production  of  a  first  quality  of  dried  fruit  than  the 
other  styles  of  evaporators,  because  the  fruit  is  not  so  completely 
under  the  control  of  the  operator.  The  fruit  must  be  shoveled 
over  from  time  to  time  to  insure  a  uniform  product.  This  hand- 
ling is  itself  a  menace  to  good  fruit,  and  when  there  is  any  quan- 
tity of  fruit  on  the  floor  it  cannot  all  be  dried  equally.  That 
which  is  dried  enough  is  generally  obliged  to  wait  until  the  least 
dried  portion  is  perfected.  Yet  there  are  instances  in  which  the 
operator  exercises  sufficient  care  to  turn  out  a  product  which  is 
indistinguishable  from  the  tower-dried  fruit.  The  particular 
merit  of  the  kiln  evaporator  is  its  cheapness. 

"2.  The  Horizontal  Drier. — The  horizontal  evaporators,  in  which 
the  pans  or  trays  of  fruit  are  moved  horizontally  or  obliquely 
across  the  heating  surface,  are  little  used  in  western  New  York, 
and  are  therefore  not  discussed  in  this  paper. 

"3.  The  Tower  Drier. — The  tower  or  stack  evaporators,  in 
various  forms,  far  outnumber  other  appliances  in  this  state.  The 
stack  is  a  chimney-like  structure,  of  wood  or  brick,  resting  in  the 
basement  of  the  building  and  extending  up  through  the  building 
and  projecting  above  the  roof.  A  coal  or  wood  furnace— prefer- 
ably the  former — is  placed  in  its  base,  and  air  which  is  drawn  in 


UPRIGHT   DRIERS  87 

from  the  basement  passes  over  the  heated  surfaces  and  ascends 
through  the  shaft,  drying  the  fruit  as  it  rises  and  carrying  the 
vapors  into  the  atmosphere.  The  fruit  is  placed  in  the  stack  on 
the  first  floor,  that  is,  the  floor  above  the  basement.  It  is  spread 
on  trays,  and  as  new  trays  are  put  in,  those  which  were  first  in- 
serted are  elevated  in  the  tower.  The  trays  finally  reach  the 
second  story,  by  which  time  the  fruit  should  be  finished,  and  the 
trays  are  removed  and  emptied  and  taken  back  to  the  first  floor,  to 
be  used  again.  This,  in  brief,  is  the  principle  upon  which  the 
tower  evaporators  work,  but  there  are  endless  variations  in  the 
details,  to  some  of  which  we  must  now  direct  our  attention. 

"The  first  stacks  were  built  of  wood.  In  1881,  L.  E.  Rogers, 
son  of  Mason  L.  Rogers,  to  whom  I  have  already  introduced  the 
reader,  built  stacks  of  brick  from  the  basement  to  the  top  of  the 
drying  chamber  in  the  second  story.  This  was  on  the  old  home- 
stead near  Williamson.  A  year  or  two  after  this,  W.  H.  Bush,  of 
Marion,  built  brick -stacks  from  cellar  to  cupola,  and  such  stacks 
are  now  frequently  seen.  The  advantages  of  the  brick-stacks  are 
durability  and  safety  from  fire.  The  greatest  danger  of  fire  is 
inside  the  stack,  and  the  wooden  fittings  and  trays  of  these  brick 
towers  could  burn  out  without  setting  fire  to  the  building.  It  is 
the  common  practice  to  build  the  stack  inside  the  building,  chiefly 
because  it  is  a  prevailing  opinion  that  the  wind  interferes  with  the 
draft  if  the  stack  is  built  against  the  building  and  exposed  on 
three  sides.  This  opinion  is  held  in  respect  to  brick  stacks,  in 
particular,  for  it  is  thought  that  the  air  will  draw  through  the 
brick  walls,  and  that  they  will  also  become  damp  in  stormy 
weather,  if  exposed.  This  notion  appears  to  be  unfounded,  how- 
ever, for  W.  H.  Bush,  of  whom  I  have  spoken,  has  recently 
erected  a  most  successful  establishment  at  his  new  home  at  Wal- 
worth,  with  three  outside  brick  stacks  with  four-inch  walls.  Mr. 
Bush  has  had  much  experience  in  the  evaporating  business,  and  as 
I  consider  his  new  outfit  to  be  a  model  in  its  way,  I  shall  have 
much  to  say  about  it  later  on.  (See  Figs.  16,  17,  19,  20,  21, 
22,  23.) 

"  The  interior  of   one  of  these  stacks  must  now  be  seen.     We 
will  first  turn  our  attention  to  the  basement  or  foundation  of  Mr. 


Fig.  16.  Evaporater  stack  with  Culver-Cassidy 
fittings.  The  diagram  looks  at  the  back  (o  Y  s) 
and  inside  of  the  front  (l  E  W  Y)  of  the  stack. 


Fig.  17.  Shows  a  front  view  section. 
C  is  the  head-block  (L  H  c  o)  in  Fig. 
16.)  D  is  cross-section  of  head-block. 
See  pages  89-92. 


A  NEW   YORK  EVAPORATOR  89 

Bush's  three  stacks  (Fig.  21) .  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  three 
furnaces,  one  under  each  tower  or  stack.  There  are  two  long 
openings  into  each,  to  admit  the  air.  The  smoke  pipes  from  these 
furnaces  run  off  across  the  cellar  and  discharge  into  the  chimney, 
which  is  plainly  shown  in  Fig.  19.  Going  up  stairs,  we  find  the 
aspect  of  the  stack  on  the  first  floor  to  be  that  shown  in  Fig.  22. 
This  is  the  door  through  which  the  trays  are  placed  into  the  stack. 
If  we  raise  this  door,  F  w,  and  look  down  to  the  furnace,  we  see 
a  coil  of  stovepipe,  P  in  Fig.  16,  over  which  the  air  passes  on  its 
way  up  the  tower.  But  before  we  proceed  to  an  examination  of 
the  inside  of  this  tower,  let  us  look  more  carefully  to  the  arrange- 
ments in  Fig.  22.  The  tray  is  laid  upon  the  frames  A  A  (one  of 
these  is  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  16),  the  little  door,  F,  is  raised,  and 
the  tray  is  shoved  into  the  stack,  v  is  a  hand-hole,  inside  of 
which  a  thermometer  may  be  hung,  w  is  a  large  door,  fastened 
by  a  button  at  x,  to  be  used  whenever  the  stack  is  cleaned  or 
repaired.  The  opening  is  large  enough  to  admit  a  man. 

"  We  are  now  ready  to  go  inside  the  stack,  and  we  will  take 
Fig.  16  as  our  guide.  The  stack  is  thirty-eight  feet  high,  over  all, 
the  walls  four  inches  thick  with  one  coat  of  plaster  on  the  inside, 
and  the  shaft  is  large  enough  to  admit  the  regulation  size  of  tray, 
which  is  forty -nine  inches  square.  A  stack  of  this  size  holds 
twenty-five  trays.  'The  back  wall  of  the  stack  is  the  blank  space 
bounded  by  the  letters  o  Y  s  in  the  diagram  A.  A  side  wall  is 
shown  in  diagonal  section  at  the  left,  bounded  by  the  letters 
T  E  w  Y.  The  door  through  which  the  trays  are  inserted,  on  the 
first  floor,  is  at  w,  and  one  of  the  frames  on  which  the  trays  are 
rested  when  they  are  shoved  in,  is  at  A.  (See  the  same  letters  in 
Fig.  22.)  The  warming  pipes  are  at  P  (see  also  Fig.  21).  The. 
stack  passes  into  the  second  story  at  F,  and  the  upper  door,  from 
which  the  trays  are  removed,  is  at  E.  Above  this  point,  the  stack 
serves  as  draft-chimney,  and  as  a  resting  place  for  the  lifting 
device.  Fig.  17  shows  a  direct  front  view  of  a  cross -section  of 
the  stack. 

"  The  chief  essential  in  the  interior  arrangement  of  a  tower  is 
some  apparatus  for  lifting  the  trays,  to  allow  of  a  tray  of  fresh 
fruit  to  be  placed  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  stack.  Some  of  these 


90  BUSH-FRUITS 

apparatus  work  by  means  of  an  endless  chain  run  on  a  shaft  and 
moved  by  a  crank,  while  others  work  directly  by  means  of  a  lever. 
Various  lifting  devices,  some  of  them  controlled  by  patents  (as 
mentioned  in  the  descriptions  of  them),  are  in  use  in  western 
New  York.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  types  are  mentioned  for 
the  purpose,  not  of  recommending  any  one  of  them,  but  to  ac- 
quaint the  reader  with  the  leading  principles  in  the  manual  opera- 
tion of  an  evaporating  establishment. 

"  The  lifting  device  by  means  of  which  the  trays  are  elevated 
in  the  Bush  stack  (Figs.  16,  19,  20)  may  be  called  the  Culver- 
Cassidy  or  Bogers  apparatus.  The  Culver  lifting  device  consisted 
of  a  head -block  which  was  raised  by  a  lever,  and  it  connected 
with  two  columns  or  runs  of  notched  strips  on  either  side  of  the 
stack.  These  vertical  strips  or  bars,  with  the  stationary  notches, 
alternately  recede  into  the  recesses  of  the  wall,  to  allow  of  the 
lifting  of  the  trays  by  one  bar  and  the  engaging  or  holding  of 
them  in  place  by  the  other.  The  Culver  head-block,  which  is 
shown  at  H  c  o,  and  the  lever  at  L  in  Fig.  16,  was  at  the  top  of 
the  stack.  Now,  the  Cassidy  lifter  worked  from  the  bottom, 
raising  the  trays  by  means  of  a  chain  winding  on  an  iron  bar 
which  was  turned  by  a  crank  outside  the  stack.  But  instead  of 
resting  the  trays  on  stationary  cogs  or  notches,  as  the  Culver 
device  did,  the  Cassidy  apparatus  employed  movable  dogs.  In 
1881,  L.  R.  Rogers  obtained  the  consent  of  the  interested  parties, 
as  he  informs  me,  and  combined  the  two  machines,  using  the 
head-block  of  the  Culver  and  the  movable  dogs  of  the  Cassidy. 
This  type  of  lifting  device  is  the  most  popular  apparatus  now  in 
use  in  Wayne  county  and  adjoining  regions,  largely  because  it  is 
readily  adapted  to  any  size  or  height  of  tower,  and  is  simple  and 
direct  in  operation. 

"The  lifting  'apparatus  in  Fig.  16,  therefore,  consists  of  two 
double  runs  or  columns  of  dogs  on  each  side  of  the  stack,  and  a 
head-block  above.  The  runs  of  dogs  are  shown  at  N  and  at  Y; 
also  at  s.  One  line  of  dogs  in  each  column  is  stationary  and 
holds  the  tray,  and  the  other  line  is  movable  and  lifts  the  tray. 
One  of  these  dogs  is  seen  in  Fig.  23.  The  dog  s  E  is  a  piece  of 
cast-iron,  hung  on  a  pivot  D.  There  are  two  of  these  dogs,  side 


LIFTING    DEVICES 


91 


by  side.  The  side  of  the  tray  rests  on  the  projecting  portion 
above  s.  One  line  of  the  dogs  is  raised  by  the  head-block  and  the 
tray  is  lifted  with  it,  the  side  of  the  tray  as  it  rises  forcing  in  the 
dog  above  it.  As  the  tray  passes  the  dog,  the  latter  falls  out  by 
its  own  weight  and  the  tray  rests  upon  it,  whilst  the  head -block  is 


pping  portable  evaporator. 


let  go,  and  the  movable  line  of  dogs  falls  back  to  its  place.  This 
is  not  the  form  of  catch  or  dog  which  was  used  in  the  original 
Cassidy  apparatus,  for  in  that  the  catches  evidently  worked  by 
springs  and  not  by  gravity.  The  brief  of  the  original  specification 
called  for  <  the  combination  of  stationary  posts  provided  with 
spring-catches,  with  vertically -movable  posts  carrying  drying- 
frames  and  provided  with  similar  spring-catches,  and  with  mech- 
anism for  operating  the  same.'  (See  U.  S.  Gazette  of  Patents, 
ix.  165,  166.) 


92 


BUSH-FRUITS 


"The  movable  or  lifting  Hue  of  dogs  is  raised  by  the  head- 
block,  shown  at  H  o  in  Fig.  16.  This  device  is  secured  to  a  tim- 
ber, c,  let  into  the  brick-work,  and  through  which  the  head,  H, 
plays.  The  apparatus  is  moved  upwards  by  means  of  the  lever, 
L,  which  works  on  a  chain  fastened  just  below  c.  A  rope,  R  (see 
also  R  in  Fig.  22),  drops  from  the  end  of  the  lever  to  the  opera- 
tor's hand  on  the  first  floor.  The  operator,  therefore,  pulls  down 


i 


Fig.  19.    Evaporator  of  W.  H.  Bush,  Walworth,  Wayne  Co.,  N.  Y. 


on  the  rope,  moving  all  the  trays  up  one  notch,  thus  leaving  the 
lowest  notch  free  for  the  insertion  of  another  tray.  Looked  at 
from  beneath,  the  head-block  presents  the  outlines  shown  in  dia- 
gram c,  Fig.  17.  The  attachment  of  the  block  to  the  lifting-rods 
is  shown  in  diagram  D  (showing  a  cross  section),  and  also  at  T  in 
Fig.  16. 

"  While  this  Culver-Cassidy  lifting  device  is  the  most  common 
one  in  western  New  York,  there  are  still  many  other  styles.  The 
old  Alden  evaporator,  which  is  now  little  used,  lifted  the  trays  by 


ENDLESS    CHAINS 


93 


means  of  an  endless  sprocket  chain  working  on  a  shaft  at  the  bot- 
tom and  top  of  the  stack,  and  bearing  fixed  dogs  at  intervals  to 
hold  the  trays.  A  crank  on  the  lower  shaft  served  to  move  the 
column  of  trays,  and  the  chain  returned  on  the  outside  of  the 
stack. 

"The  Williams  evaporator  works  endless  chains  wholly  inside 
the  stack,  and  the  trays  are  brought   back   to  the   feeding   door, 


Fig.  20.    Same  as  Fig.  19,  rear  view.    Coal  shed  'on  the  left. 

where  they  are  removed.  This  saves  running  up  and  down  stairs 
with  the  trays,  which  is  a  drawback  in  the  towers  already  de- 
scribed, and  it  allows  the  operator  to  inspect  any  tray  of  fruit 

at  will  by  turning  the  crank  and  bringing  it  back  to  the    door. 

*    #     * 

"A  tower  dryer  constructed  upon  a  different  principle  is  the 
Automatic,  made  in  Philadelphia.  In  this  machine  the  trays 
themselves  fit  upon  one  another  and  form  the  stack.  The  entire 


94  BUSH-FRUITS 

pile  or  stack  of  trays  is  lifted  by  a  crank  and  chain,  and  a  new 
tray  is  inserted  at  the  bottom. 

"  There  are  other  styles  of  tower  driers  which  have  no  lifting 
devices.  The  trays  slide  into  slots  or  rest  upon  cleats,  and  they 
may  be  taken  out  and  replaced  higher  up,  or  the  evaporating  may 
be  controlled  wholly  by  attention  to  the  heat  and  to  ventilating  by 
opening  the  doors.  Most  small  evaporators  designed  for  prepar- 
ing fruit  for  family  use  are  of  this  description.  Any  person  who 
is  handy  with  tools  should  be  able,  from  all  the  foregoing  account, 
to  make  a  machine  which  will  evaporate  from  two  to  ten  bushels 
of  berries  or  apples  a  day,  and  thus  be  able  to  save  most  of  the 
fruit  about  a  small  plantation  which  ordinarily  goes  to  waste.  A 
drier  containing  ten  to  twelve  trays  three  feet  square,  should 
handle  ten  bushels  of  apples  a  day  with  ease.  A  small  stove  may 
be  used  for  heater,  or  a  brick  furnace  may  be  built.  Of  small, 
cheap  driers  in  the  market,  the  Topping,  made  at  Marion,  N.  Y., 
and  shown  in  Fig.  18,  is  much  used  in  Wayne  county.  This  can 
be  had  in  four  sizes,  with  capacities  ranging  from  five  to  twenty 
bushels  of  apples  a  day. 

"4.  Steam  Tray-driers. — Steam  is  occasionally  used  in  kiln 
driers,  as  we  have  seen,  but  it  is  most  efficient  when  applied  in 
closed  stacks  or  boxes  underneath  trays.  For  a  very  large  output, 
steam  is  probably  the  most  efficient  and  economical  heat,  par- 
ticularly where  light  power  is  also  wanted  for  running  parers, 
cider  presses,  carriers,  and  the  like;  and  it  also  has  the  advantage 
of  being  easily  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  establishment  for 
warming  purposes.  Coils  of  steam  pipe  are  laid  in  horizontal 
tiers,  the  space  between  each  two  tiers  being  just  sufficient  to 
allow  of  the  easy  insertion  of  one  or  two  trays.  Each  tray  is, 
therefore,  independent  of  all  others  above  or  below  it,  and  it  may 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  its  original  position  until  the  fruit  is 
finished.  A  narrow  horizontal  door  is  provided  for  each  space. 
These  tiers  of  steam  pipes  may  reach  a  total  height  of  five  to  eight 
feet,  and  several  stands  of  them  are  usually  placed  along  side, 
and  the  whole  is  usually  boxed  in  with  lumber. 

"The  use  of  steam  is  capable  of  almost  endless  modifications 
to  suit  individual  circumstances,  and  it  is  so  completely  within 


96 


BUSH-FRUITS 


the  control  of  the  operator,  that  it  must  increase  in  popularity  as 
competition  and  co-operation  increases. 

"5.  Air-blast  Driers. — The  drying  of  fruit  by  means  of  drafts 
of  heated  air  has  received  some  attention  recently  in  western  New 
York,  particularly  in  the  Blanchard  establishment  at  Albion,  but 


&!—         N    ';       X..     J 
*^tr~'&±3' — K- 
, ~.  ^W--- ---- 


Fig.  22.    Feeding  door  of  stack. 

as  its  use  is  adapted  rather  more  to  large  establishments  than  u> 
the  individual  grower,  I  shall  not  discuss  it  here. 

« Methods  'and  Results.— As  in  all  other  industries,  there  are  all 
grades  of  products  turned  out  of  the  evaporators,  the  differences 
being  largely  attributable  to  the  care  and  attention  which  the 
operator  gives  to  his  business.  In  raspberries,  however,  with 


PLAN    OF    THE    BUILDING 


97 


which  this  .paper  is  concerned,  there  are  fewer  differences  in 
grades  than  in  other  evaporated  fruits,  because  the  fruits  them- 
selves do  not  need  any  preparation  previous  to  evaporation,  and 
because  even  a  large  number  of  inferior 
fruits  may  be  lost  in  the  mass. 

"  If  one  contemplates  making  a  large 
quantity    of    evaporated    products    from 
year  to  year,  he  should   give   particular 
attention  to  the  plan  of  his  building  as 
well  as  of  the  evaporator  itself. 
A  basement  is   handy  for  coal 
and  storage,  and  it  contains  the      \y       0 
heating    apparatus.      The    first 
floor  is  the  receiving  room   for 
the  fruit,  the  office,  and  either 
this  room  or  a  wing  contains  the  paring 
machines,  bleaching  boxes,  and  other  ac- 
cessories.    The  second  floor  affords  stor- 
age for  the  finished  fruit.     This  is  stored 
in  piles  on  the  floor,  and  the  latter  should 
therefore  be  made  of  a  good   quality  of 
dressed  and  matched  lumber.      Nothing 
is  more  essential  to  an  evaporating  es- 
tablishment than  scrupulous  cleanliness, 
for   the    refuse  of  the   fruit   soon   sours 
and  decays  and  makes  the  place  a  most 
forbidding  one,  while  a  well  kept  evap- 
orating establishment  has  a  most  attrac- 
tive, fruity  odor.     I  am  sorry  to  say  that 
there   is  opportunity  for  great  improve- 
ment in  matters  of  simple  cleanliness  in 
very  many  of  the  evaporating  establish- 
ments of  this  state. 

"Many   of    the    evaporator    buildings    Fie> 
are  remodeled  from  old  dwelling  houses, 
shops,    or  other  buildings,    but    they    are   rarely   as    handy  and 
efficient   as   those  which  are    built  for  the    purpose.      It  should 


98  BUSH-FRUITS 

be  borne  in  mind,  when  building,  that  the  stacks  themselves 
should  occupy  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  establishment; 
that  is,  the  room  needed  for  storage  and  working  much  exceeds 
that  needed  for  the  drying  towers.  The  Bush  establishment, 
shown  in  Figs.  16,  19,  20,  21,  is  24x36  feet,  with  sixteen-foot 
posts,  three  solid  brick  stacks  thirty- eight  feet  high,  and  stone 
basements  well  finished  throughout,  and  cost  $1,400.  This  estab- 
lishment has  a  capacity  of  about  1,000  bushels  of  apples  a  week. 

"The  tray  most  commonly  used  in  Wayne  county  is  a  frame 
four  feet  one  inch  square,  covered  with  wire  screen  which  has  a 
mesh  about  one -fifth  or  one -fourth  inch  wide.  Such  a  tray  re- 
ceives about  sixteen  quarts  of  berries  at  each  filling.  A  stack  of 
the  capacity  of  Mr.  Bush's  holds  twenty-five  trays,  so  that  the 
stack  has  from  twelve  to  thirteen  bushels  of  berries,  measured 
when  fresh,  when  it  is  full.  Mr.  Hair  spreads  from  twenty-four 
to  thirty  quarts  of  berries  upon  his  five-by-five  foot  trays.  Under 
ordinary  conditions,  with  heat  about  200°F.  at  the  bottom  tray, 
these  trays  may  be  moved  up — that  is,  fresh  berries  inserted — 
every  ten  minutes.  A  twenty-five  tray  stack,  therefore,  would  be 
discharged  in  about  four  to  five  hours.  The  operator  will  soon 
find,  however,  that  the  time  required  to  finish  the  fruit  varies  with 
many  conditions  and  with  the  variety  of  berry.  In  moist  weather 
and  with  the  first  pickings,  more  time  is  required  because  the 
fruit  is  plump  and  juicy.  For  the  later  pickings  and  in  dry 
times,  the  evaporation  may  be  completed  in  half  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  plump  berries.  The  Ohio  raspberry  also  dries 
quicker  than  most  other  common  varieties.  It  is,  therefore,  often 
necessary  to  '  strip  '  the  trays ;  that  is,  to  take  out  five  or  six  or 
more  trays  at  once,  rather  than  to  wait  for  each  one  to  come  out 
in  its  appointed  turn.  A  test  made  by  myself  in  one  of  the  best 
evaporators  of  the  state,  finished  Gregg  raspberries  in  four  hours. 
The  trays  were  filled  with  twenty-four  quarts  at  11  A.  M.,  with 
bottom  heat  175°  and  top  heat  (at  upper  trays)  100°,  the  outside 
temperature  being  74°.  The  fruit  came  out  at  3  P.  M.,  and  meas- 
ured ten  quarts  to  the  tray. 

#**•*#•*•*•*•* 
"The  staple  variety  of  blackcaps  for  evaporating  is  the  Ohio, 


NUMBER    OF    CROPS  99 

although  the  Gregg  is  crowding  it  out— and  properly  so,  I  think — 
in  many  of  the  best  berry  sections.  There  are  no  close  com- 
petitors of  these  two  varieties  for  evaporating  purposes.  The 
red  varietieties  are  seldom  evaporated,  because  there  is  little 
demand  for  the  product,  they  consume  much  time  on  the  tray,  and 
too  many  berries  are  required  to  make  a  pound.  Shaffer  is  more 
frequently  dried,  although  it  has  no  conspicuous  place  in  the 
industry." 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

The  duration  of  a  plantation  has  already  been 
touched  upon  in  connection  with  the  matter  of  prun- 
ing, and,  as  there  indicated,  much  will  depend  on  the 
system  of  cultivation  and  care.  With  ordinary  high 
culture,  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  harvest  more  than 
four  crops,  and  one  of  these,  being  the  first  crop,  is 
only  a  partial  one.  Of  course  the  plants  will  continue 
to  bear  much  longer  than  this.  It  is  merely  a  question 
whether  the  grower  can  afford  to  continue  the  increased 
amount  of  labor  needed  to  keep  an  old  plantation  in 
condition  for  the  smaller  yield  of  poorer  fruit  which  he 
is  likely  to  get  in  return. 

CLEARING  THE   GROUND 

It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  rid  a  piece 
of  ground  of  black  raspberry  plants,  when  they  are 
no  longer  wanted.  Mow,  rake  together,  and  burn  the 
bushes  after  fruiting,  then  plow  deep  and  thoroughly, 
turning  out  all  the  berry  stumps,  and  the  work  is 
practically  done.  Some  of  them  will  throw  up  shoots 
again  when  not  thoroughly  uprooted,  but  it  is  very 


100  B  USH-FR  UITS 

little  trouble  to  keep  them  in  subjection.  This  first 
plowing  is  heavy  and  slow  work,  and  many  of  the 
stumps  will  drag  out  and  interfere  in  a  measure  with  the 
subsequent  harrowing,  but  aside  from  that,  there  is  little 
difficulty.  If  the  land  is  to  be  used  for  small  or  fine 
crops,  these  stumps  will  need  to  be  removed,  but  for 
potatoes  or  corn  they  will  cause  very  little  trouble. 
Raspberries  seem  to  leave  the  land  in  fine  condition 
for  other  crops.  One  of  the  finest  pieces  of  corn  ever 
obtained,  in  my  own  experience,  was  the  first  crop 
taken  from  the  land  after  plowing  under  a  black  rasp- 
berry plantation. 


HARDINESS     OF     BLACK  -CAP&' 

The  black  raspberries  are  among  the  hardiest 
members  of  the  family.  The  Gregg  is  one  of  the 
most  tender  varieties,  but  even  this  will  stand  the 
winters  of  most  localities  without  serious  injury.  Of 
course,  in  very  severe  climates,  it  will  be  found  profit- 
able to  put  down  the  plants  for  winter  protection, 
even  though  not  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  the 
bush  from  killing.  The  increased  yield  resulting  from 
the  greater  vitality  and  vigor  of  the  plants  so  pro- 
tected is  found  to  much  more  than  repay  the  cost  of 
protection.  Plants  probably  "winter -kill"  in  August 
as  often  as  in  January,  and  it  is  as  important  to 
take  every  pains  to  protect  them  from  insect  or  fungous 
injury  during  summer  as  to  protect  them  from  cold 
in  winter. 


PROBABLE    YIELDS   PER  ACRE  1Q1 

YIELDS 

In  reply  to  the  question,  "What  do  you  consider 
a  fair  average  yield  per  acre  of  black -caps!"  figures 
were  received  from  fifty -eight  growers.  Computing 
the  average  from  all  these  replies  as  accurately  as 
possible,  we  have  for  the  answer  2,493  quarts,  or 
nearly  seventy -eight  bushels,  per  acre.  The  majority 
gave  the  number  of  quarts  or  bushels  which  they  con- 
sidered an  average;  others  placed  their  answer  in  the 
form  of  "from  seventy -five  to  one  hundred  bushels," 
and  two  gave  what  they  considered  high  or  maximum 
yields,  making  it  a  little  more  difficult  to  get  the 
exact  average. 

The  lowest  estimate  given  as  an  average  yield  was 
576  quarts,  the  highest  9,600  quarts.  Probably  neither 
of  these  are  extensive  commercial  growers.  The  lat- 
ter estimate  is  very  interesting  as  showing  what  can 
be  done  with  the  best  culture,  for  it  comes  from  a 
very  intelligent  fruit-grower,  mainly  interested  in 
other  lines,  and  who  evidently  bases  these  figures  on 
the  yield  in  his  own  home  garden,  as  his  reply  is 
given  in  the  form  of  "sixty  quarts  to  the  square 
rod."  A  majority  of  the  estimates  range  from  two 
thousand  to  three  thousand  two  hundred  quarts.  One 
grower,  whose  answer  to  the  question  is  "seventy-five 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  bushels,"  adds:  "We 
give  closer  attention  to  many  of  the  points  in  berry 
culture  than  most  growers,  and  really  average  better 
than  I  give  you." 

These  figures  are  entitled  to  a  large  degree  of  con- 


102  BUSH-FRUITS 

fidenee,  for  they  come  from  practical  men  who  are  in 
the  business  and  know  whereof  they  speak.  To  be 
sure,  they  are  estimates  rather  than  records  of  yields 
obtained,  but  they  are  estimates  based  on  practical 
experience,  not  on  theory.  By  some  they  will  be 
considered  too  high,  but  there  are  growers  who  are 
constantly  marketing  larger  yields. 

The  yield  in  pounds  of  dried  product  per  bushel  of 
green  fruit  varies  greatly  with  different  seasons  and 
parts  of  the  same  season.  Early  in  a  wet  season, 
when  the  fruit  has  made  a  quick,  vigorous  and  watery 
growth,  it  may  take  four  quarts  to  make  a  pound  of 
dried  fruit.  At  the  end  of  a  .very  dry  season,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  take  only  two  quarts.  So  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  learn,  growers  expect  to  average 
about  ten  pounds  of  dried  fruit  to  the  bushel.  There 
is  considerable  difference  in  varieties  in  this  respect. 
The  Ohio  is  one  of  the  heaviest  yielders,  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  green  fruit,  owing  largely  to  the 
greater  number  of  seeds.  It  is  one  of  the  poorest  in 
quality,  and  possesses  less  food  value  per  bushel  than 
other  varieties.  The  Gregg  follows  it  closely  in  yield 
and  is  a  better  berry.  In  some  experiments  with  seed- 
lings, Goff  found  that  small  and  juicy  berries  yielded 
a  higher  percentage  of  evaporated  fruit  than  larger 
and  dryer  ones,  showing  that  it  does  not  follow  be- 
cause a  berry  is  rather  dry  in  texture  that  it  will 
give  a  good  yield  when  evaporated.  In  point  of 
quality  and  food  value,  the  Shaffer  ranks  among  the 
best,  so  that  from  the  consumer's  standpoint,  at  least, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  desirable.  It  is  so  near  a  red 


EFFFCTS  OF  DROUGHT  103 

raspberry  that  when  evaporated  its  quality  is  fully 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  the  true  reds,  while 
the  yield  of  dried  fruit  per  bushel  is  not  very  far  below 
that  of  the  black- caps.  It  is  certainly  an  excellent 
berry  to  dry  for  the  home  market,  where  the  price 
can  be  made  to  conform  to  the  cost  of  production. 
The  man  who  is  growing  berries  to  evaporate  is  not 
likely  to  suffer  so  seriously  from  drought  as  the  one 
who  sells  his  fruit  fresh.  Dry  weather  reduces  the 
number  of  quarts  per  acre  much  more  than  the  number 
of  pounds  of  dried  fruit.  A  long  drought,  extending 
through  the  early  part  of  the  season,  does  injure  the 
yield,  but  dry  weather  at  ripening  time  only,  need 
cause  no  serious  loss  if  the  cultivation  has  been  fre- 
quent and  thorough.  In  fact,  the  man  who  will  culti- 
vate thoroughly  enough  is  practically  independent  of 
drought. 

USUAL   PROFITS 

Basing  an  estimate  on  the  above  figures  for  average 
yields,  we  may  look  for  750  pounds  of  dried  fruit  per 
acre,  with  thoroughly  good  management.  Judging  from 
past  experience,  this  product,  through  a  series  of  years, 
is  likely  to  average  from  fifteen  to  twenty  cents  per 
pound,  making  a  gross  return  of  $112.50  to  $150 
per  acre  from  fields  in  full  bearing.  The  cost  of 
harvesting  and  marketing  may  be  summed  up  about 
as  follows:  Harvesting  at  one-half  cent  per  quart, 
$12.50 ;  evaporating  at  two  and  one -half  cents  per 
pound,  $18.75  ;  cleaning  for  market  at  one  cent  per 


104  BUSH-FRUITS 

pound,  $7.50 ;  marketing  at  one  cent  per  pound, 
$7.50.  This  leaves  about  $75  to  $100  for  rent  of 
land,  cost  of  growing,  and  profits.  On  the  whole, 
raspberry  growing  for  the  purpose  of  making  dried 
fruit  can  be  recommended  with  confidence  to  the  gen- 
eral farmer  who  is  willing  to  give  it  careful  attention. 

If  sold  fresh  in  the  market  at  six  cents  a  quart, 
the  return  will  be  about  the  same.  Accurate  figures 
concerning  cost  of  production  are  hard  to  get,  and 
each  grower  can  make  his  own  estimates  best.  A 
crop  of  potatoes  can  be  grown  between  the  rows  the 
year  of  setting,  which  will  usually  repay  that  year's 
cultivation,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  plants,  while  the 
second  year's  crop  of  fruit  will  do  the  same,  and 
perhaps  more.  Plants  can  be  bought  at  from  $6  to 
$8  per  thousand.  If  set  three  by  six  feet,  it  re- 
quires 2,420  plants  to  the  acre.  If  set  farther  apart 
than  this,  the  number  required  is  proportionately  less. 

There  are  always  men  who  are  in  constant  fear  of 
over-production,  and  who  hesitate  to  undertake  enter- 
prises, because  they  expect  everything  to  be  overdone. 
To  this  class  of  men  the  amount  of  dried  raspberries 
which  are  now  sold  every  year  would  have  seemed  im- 
possible a  few  years  ago,  and  yet  there  seems  to  be  no 
indication  that  the  limit  is  reached.  The  product  is 
easier  sold  now  than  then,  and  perhaps  the  price  does 
not  average  materially  lower.  Moreover,  since  the 
business  has  so  greatly  increased  in  extent,  the  insect 
and  fungous  enemies  have  become  more  prominent, 
so  that  more  energy  and  skill  are  demanded,  and 
as  a  consequence  the  careless  and  floating  class  of 


OVER-PRODUCTION  105 

growers  is  becoming  discouraged  and  abandoning  it. 
This  is  just  the  condition  of  affairs  which  indicates 
a  favorable  opportunity  for  the  energetic  man  to  go 
ahead,  and  he  is  the  one  who  nearly  always  succeeds 
in  his  undertakings 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  BLACKBERRIES 

As  a  cultivated  plant  the  blackberry  is  an  American 
fruit.  All  the  varieties  have  been  developed  from 
native  wild  plants  within  the  latter  half  of  this  century. 
Like  the  raspberry,  it  is,  therefore,  a  new  fruit ;  but 
raspberries  have  long  been  grown  in  Europe,  whereas 
blackberries  have  not.  It  will  not  be  surprising,  there- 
fore, if  we  are  not  yet  able  to  give  complete  advice  on 
ail  points  of  blackberry  cultivation. 

SOIL 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among 
growers  regarding  the  soil  best  suited  to  the  blackberry, 
a  diversity  which  is  no  doubt  due,  in  part  at  least,  to 
the  fact  that  a  blackberry  is  hard  to  kill.  It  is  likely 
to  make  a  partial  success  wherever  it  may  chance  to  be, 
for  it  possesses  a  genuine  courage  which  knows  no 
failure,  and  bravely  sets  out  to  make  the  best  of  existing 
conditions. 

Many  hold  that  only  a  comparatively  light  and 
poor  soil  is  suitable,  in  order  that  the  plants  may 
not  make  too  great  a  growth  of  wood  at  the  expense 
of  fruit  production.  On  the  other  hand,  growers  in 
the  prairie  states,  where  the  land  is  naturally  rich,  do 


SOIL  FOR   BLACKBERRIES  107 

not  recommend  their  poorer  soils.  A  strong,  well- 
drained  clay  loam  meets  with  the  most  general  ap- 
proval, though  light,  warm  land,  having  a  porous  clay 
subsoil,  may  give  excellent  results.  On  these  stronger 
soils,  plants  have  frequently  passed  the  winter  un- 
harmed when  parts  of  the  same  field  on  more  sterile 
soil  were  badly  winter -killed. 

A  soil  that  is  retentive  of  moisture  is  imperative, 
this  being  the  prime  essential  in  blackberry  growing. 
For  this  reason  a  cool,  northern  exposure  is  generally 
preferable,  because  such  a  location  will  help  to  mitigate 
the  severity  of  drought,  the  arch  enemy  of  the  black- 
berry. Deep  working  of  the  soil  before  planting,  and 
natural  or  artificial  drainage,  are  essential  both  to  con- 
serve the  necessary  moisture  and  to  prevent  over  sup- 
ply. None  of  our  cultivated  brambles  can  make  satis- 
factory terms  with  a  wet,  heavy  soil,  and  any  attempt 
to  compel  them  to  do  so  will  surely  result  in  failure. 
Land  with  a  high  and  hard  subsoil,  therefore,  should  be 
tile -drained  before  planting. 

FERTILIZERS 

Do  blackberries  need  fertilizers  ?  Some  say  no ; 
others  yes.  There  muslrbe  a  reason  for  this  difference 
of  opinion.  On  strong,  moist  soil  blackberries  may 
produce  such  a  rampant  growth  that  they  nearly  forget 
to  bear  fruit.  These  overgrown,  poorly  matured  canes 
are  then  likely  to  suffer  from  the  cold  of  the  succeed- 
ing winter,  and  to  be  left  in  a  condition  to  repeat  the 
same  behavior  the  following  season.  It  is  a  signifi- 


108  BUSH-FRUITS 

cant  fact,  however,  that  western  growers,  who  may  be 
fairly  presumed  to  have  a  stronger  soil,  are  strongest 
in  their  recommendations  of  liberal  fertilizing.  The 
following  statement  from  O.  B.  Galusha,  as  reported 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Illinois  Horticultural  Society 
for  1880,  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration  :  "A  gen- 
erous feeding  of  the  soil  is  amply  repaid  in  liberal 
crops  of  fruit.  In  my  older  plantation,  the  soil  was 
equally  manured  throughout,  and  yet  on  one  side  it  is 
naturally  considerably  richer  than  the  other,  and  this 
side  produces  fully  one -third  more  fruit  than  the 
other."  This  same  principle  will  be  found  to  apply 
with  equal  satisfaction  to  ordinary  soils  throughout  the 
country,  as  a  whole.  If  properly  managed  and  pruned, 
the  plants  will  be  able  to  transform  a  large  amount  of 
plant -food  into  luscious  berries  and  laughing  dollars. 
Heavy  applications  of  stable  manure  to  young  plants, 
which  have  not  yet  sufficient  wood  to  carry  full  crops, 
may  work  injury,  especially  if  on  strong,  moist  soils. 
On  soils  of  this  character,  nothing  is  needed  until  the 
plants  are  in  full  bearing.  If  additional  pi  ant -food  is 
then  desirable,  commercial  fertilizers,  with  a  liberal 
proportion  of  potash,  may  better  fill  the  need. 

PROPAGATION   OF   THE   BLACKBERRY 

The  propagation  of  blackberries,  as  it  is  most  often 
done  by  means  of  suckers,  is  a  very  simple  operation. 
In  fact,  the  plants  attend  to  that  matter  themselves, 
and  all  that  the  cultivator  need  do  is  to  take  care  of 
the  product.  Indeed,  it  is  owing  to  the  profusion  of 


PRODUCING    YOUNG  PLANTS  109 

suckers  thrown  up  by  these  plants  that  many  failures 
occur  among  those  who  lack  the  courage  or  energy  to 
vigorously  destroy  them.  Unless  wanted  for  planting 
or  for  sale,  these  shoots  are  weeds  in  the  full  sense  of 
the  word,  and  detract  as  much  from  the  vigor  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  parent  plant  as  any  other  class  of 
weeds.  The  effect  on  the  parent  is  the  same,  to  be 
sure,  whether  the  young  plants  are  wanted  or  not,  and 
no  plantation  can  yield  as  heavy  crops  of  fruit  if 
called  upon  to  produce  plants  also.  It  merely  becomes, 
then,  a  question  as  to  which  are  the  more  profitable 
and  desirable,  the  plants  or  the  berries.  In  general, 
if  the  plants  are  needed  for  planting,  or  if  there  is 
a  market  for  them  at  fair  prices,  they  are  likely  to 
prove  more  profitable  than  fruit. 

If  it  is  desired  to  produce  many  plants  of  a  new 
and  high-priced  variety,  the  number  of  suckers  may 
be  increased  by  cultivation  which  tends  to  disturb  the 
roots.  Thrusting  a  spade  into  the  ground  in  circles 
several  inches  apart  about  the  parent  plant  will  sever 
many  of  the  roots,  practically  making  root -cuttings 
of  them,  thereby  causing  a  large  number  of  plants  to 
spring  up.  Some  careful  observers  assert  that  close 
pruning  also  tends  to  increase  the  number  of  suckers 
thrown  up,  wherefore  this  might  also  be  used  as  an 
aid  to  rapid  propagation. 

Plants  in  large  numbers  can  be  cheaply  produced 
from  an  old  plantation  which  is  to  be  discarded,  by 
cutting  away  the  bushes,  plowing  and  cultivating 
the  ground  in  spring,  and  then  letting  everything 
grow.  If  the  land  is  poor,  manuring  will  increase 


110  B  USH-FR  UITS 

the  vigor  of  the  plants.  Roots  have  also  been  found 
to  throw  up  more  suckers  when  in  contact  with 
coarse  manure. 

Although  propagation  by  suckers  is  by  far  the  most 
common  method,  and  answers  equally  well  for  practical 
purposes,  yet  root -cuttings  are  often  used,  and  give 
excellent  results.  This  is  especially  true  where  a  speedy 
increase  of  choice  varieties  is  desired.  The  blackberry 
is  particularly  well  adapted  to  this  method  of  propaga- 
tion, and  all  the  work  can  be  done  out  of  doors.  The 
cuttings  may  be  made  either  in  fall  or  spring.  All  roots 
three -sixteenths  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  may  be 
used,  being  cut  into  pieces  two  or  three  inches  long. 
If  taken  in  the  fall,  these  should  be  stored  in  boxes  of 
moist  sand,  which  should  be  kept  in  a  cellar  during  the 
winter,  or  be  buried  outside  on  dry  ground,  where  no 
water  will  collect  about  them.  It  is  well  to  have  holes 
or  cracks  in  the  bottom  of  the  boxes,  to  allow  the 
escape  of  surplus  moisture.  The  cuttings  should  be 
stratified  in  the  boxes  in  the  same  way  that  seeds  and 
nuts  are,  with  a  layer  of  sand  or  soil,  then  a  layer 
of  cuttings,  another  of  sand,  etc. 

If  the  conditions  are  favorable  during  the  winter, 
the  whitish  granular -looking  excrescence  from  the  cut 
surfaces,  known  as  the  callus,  will  have  formed  before 
spring,  so  that  the  pieces  will  be  in  good  condition  for 
planting.  For  this  reason  cuttings  taken  in  the  fall 
and  properly  treated  during  the  winter,  usually  give 
better  success  and  a  more  vigorous  growth  than  those 
taken  in  spring.  In  spring  the  cuttings  are  planted  out 
in  loose,  mellow  soil,  in  trenches  two  to  three  inches 


ROOT-CUTTINGS  111 

deep,  depending  upon  the  comparative  heaviness  or 
lightness  of  the  soil,  and  about  three  inches  apart  in 
the  furrow.  They  are  covered  and  the  soil  firmed  over 
them,  the  same  as  in  planting  peas,  potatoes,  or  any 
other  garden  vegetable.  Mulching  the  ground  with  a 
light  layer  of  straw,  sawdust,  or  similar  material,  to 
prevent  it  from  drying  out,  aids  in  promoting  their 
growth  and  insuring  a  good  stand. 

For  those  who  have  greenhouse  facilities,  a  very 
satisfactory  way  is  to  take  up  the  roots  and  make  the 
cuttings  as  early  in  spring  as  the  ground  will  permit, 
stratifying  them  in  boxes  of  sand  as  already  described, 
and  placing  them  under  the  greenhouse  benches. 
Later,  as  other  plants  go  outside  and  space  permits, 
these  boxes  are  placed  on  the  benches.  By  this  treat- 
ment the  cuttings  become  callused,  and  are  in  good  con- 
dition to  go  into  trenches  outside  by  the  last  of  May. 

If  a  variety  is  particularly  scarce  and  it  is  desirable 
to  increase  the  stock  of  it  with  the  greatest  possible 
speed,  the  cuttings  may  be  made  smaller,  one -half  to 
one  inch  long,  and  the  whole  operation  be  carried  on 
under  glass.  In  this  case  the  cuttings  had  better  be 
placed  just  beneath  the  surface  in  beds  of  sand,  and 
furnished  with  a  gentle  bottom  heat.  The  plants  are 
potted  off  as  soon  as  buds  have  been  developed  and 
are  well  under  way,  or  when  leaf -growth  has  begun. 
Sometimes  they  are  sown  in  shallow  boxes  of  soil  after 
the  callus  and  buds  have  developed,  and  allowed  to 
remain  till  several  inches  high,  then  potted,  or  even 
set  from  here  directly  into  the  open  field,  if  the  weather 
and  soil  are  in  suitable  condition. 


112  BUSH-FRUITS 

PLANTING 

Before  considering  how  to  plant,  the  question  of 
when  to  plant  should  be  decided.  As  already  noted  in 
Chapter  I.,  there  are  arguments  in  favor  of  both  spring 
and  fall  planting.  In  fact,  if  planted  in  late  fall  or 
early  spring,  there  is  likely  to  be  very  little  failure  in 
either  case,  provided  the  fall -set  plants  are  protected 
with  a  covering  of  soil  or  coarse  manure  during  the 
winter.  For  the  great,  region  of  the  Plains,  which  is 
subject  to  winter  as  well  as  summer  drought,  fall  plant- 
ing is  less  likely  to  prove  satisfactory  than  in  moister 
climates.  There  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  many 
plants  of  all  kinds  perish  in  these  regions  from  lack  of 
moisture  during  the  winter  months.  In  general,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  safe  to  assume  that  fall  planting  is 
preferable  to  late  spring  planting,  and  if  circumstances 
are  known  to  be  such  that  the  work  cannot  be  done  in 
proper  season  in  the  spring,  it  had  better  be  done  in  the 
fall ;  if  the  work  can  be  done  at  the  right  time,  plant 
in  spring. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  first  essential  in 
the  operation  of  planting  is  to  insure  a  proper  and 
thorough  preparation  of  the  soil,  a  matter  which  has 
already  been  discussed.  That  done,  the  question  must 
be  settled  as  to  the  manner  of  placing  the  plants 
on  the  field,  whether  in  closely  set  rows  to  culti- 
vate only  one  way,  or  in  check  rows  to  cultivate  both 
ways.  This  will,  of  course,  be  decided  by  circum- 
stances and  the  individual  preferences  of  the  grower. 
Like  many  other  questions,  it  is  one  on  which  there 


PLANTING    THE    BLACKBERRY  H3 

are  no  records  of  accurate  experiments,  comparing  the 
two  methods  and  giving  the  resulting  yield  and  profits. 
One  of  the  most  enterprising  fruit  growers  in  the 
country,  J.  H.  Hale,  of  Connecticut,  says:  "I  have 
seen  the  largest  yield  in  quarts,  the  finest  fruit  and 
the  most  satisfactory  results,  from  planting  blackberries 
in  hills  seven  to  eight  feet  apart  each  way."  Nor  does 
he  stand  alone  in  recommending  this  practice,  for  there 
are  many  other  progressive  and  enterprising  growers 
who  are  adopting  the  same  method.  The  advantages 
of  the  plan  are  larger  and  finer  fruit,  obtained  with  less 
expenditure  of  hand  labor.  With  the  cultivator  run- 
ning both  ways,  little  hand -hoeing  is  required.  It 
is  of  especial  advantage  in  growing  fruit  for  a  critical 
market,  and  where  wages  are  high,  and  help  hard  to 
get.  The  general  impression  prevails  that  the  yield  is 
less.  If  so,  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  high-priced 
land,  where  the  greatest  possible  return  per  acre  must 
be  had.  If,  as  its  advocates  assert,  however,  the 
yield  is  as  great,  or  even  greater  than  by  hedge -row 
planting,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why 
the  plan  should  not  replace  the  hedge -row  method 
entirely. 

Having  decided  upon  the  method  to  be  employed, 
mark  out  the  land  to  correspond,  plowing  good,  deep 
furrows  in  one  direction  to  receive  the  plants.  In  set- 
ting, time  will  be  saved  if  three  or  four  men  can  work 
together.  Let  one  carry  the  plants  in  a  pail  of  water, 
and  drop  them  at  the  intersection  of  the  mark  and 
furrow,  while  the  others  set.  The  roots  should  be  well 
spread  along  the  furrow,  the  soil  drawn  in  over  them, 

H 


114  BUSH-FRUITS 

and  firmed  with  the  hands  or  feet.  Ordinarily  this  is 
most  conveniently  done  by  working  on  hands  and  knees 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  furrow  from  which  the  soil 
is  thrown  out,  so  that  it  can  be  quickly  drawn  in  with 
the  hands.  In  fine,  mellow  soil,  free  from  stones,  the 
planter  may  walk  along  the  furrow,  take  the  plant  in 
one  hand,  and  do  the  covering  and  firming  with  the 
feet,  or  at  least  enough  of  it  to  fix  the  plant  in  posi- 
tion and  protect  it  from  drying  out,  leaving  the  balance 
to  be  done  with  hoes.  The  furrows  should  be  deep 
enough  to  admit  of  setting  the  plants  a  little  lower  than 
they  previously  grew,  and  of  doing  it  easily.  Filling 
in  the  furrow,  beyond  what  is  required  to  insure  satis- 
factory conditions  of  growth  for  the  young  plants,  can 
be  left  to  follow  as  a  matter  of  course  in  the  future 
cultivation. 

For  row  planting,  rows  eight  feet  apart,  with  plants 
three  feet  apart  in  the  row,  will  be  found  satisfactory; 
this  gives  1,815  plants  per  acre.  Occasionally  a  grower 
prefers  planting  as  close  as  two  feet,  and  others  as  far 
apart  as  four  feet 

Intermingling  varieties  to  insure  more  effectual 
pollination  has  seldom  been  considered,  though  an 
occasional  variety  has  been  known  to  need  the  help 
of  neighboring  kinds.  Recent  observations  in  experi- 
mental plots  where  varieties  were  growing  somewhat 
isolated  has  convinced  me  that  it  is  often  an  impor- 
tant factor,  even  among  well-known  varieties. 

Strawberries  frequently  do  well  planted  among 
blackberries.  They  are  sometimes  set  in  rows  and 
left  till  the  blackberries  smother  them  out.  It  is 


TILLAGE   AND   MOISTURE  115 

doubtful  whether  this  practice  is  advisable,  though 
they  may  occupy  the  space  between  the  rows  with  profit 
for  one  or  two  years. 

TILLAGE     AND     MULCHING 

Little  need  be  said  on  the  subject  of  cultivation 
in  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  on  the  sub- 
ject in  general  (Chapter  I.).  Some  writers  have  ad- 
vised no  cultivation  for  the  blackberry,  at  least  after 
the  second  year,  on  the  ground  that  cultivation  pro- 
duces a  too  rampant  growth  and  consequent  lack  of 
hardiness.  While  this  may  be  true  in  part,  the  prac- 
tice of  letting  them  go  without  cultivating  is  open  to 
an  equally  serious  if  not  more  grave  objection.  The 
most  dangerous  enemy  to  blackberry  growing  in  most 
sections  of  the  country  is  dry  weather,  especially  if 
occurring  about  the  time  of  ripening.  Tillage  is  the 
most  available  means  at  command,  in  most  cases,  for 
overcoming  this  difficulty.  A  crop  may  easily  be  re- 
duced one -half  by  drying  up  on  the  bushes  and,  while 
cultivation  cannot  entirely  prevent  this  loss,  it  will  do 
much  toward  it.  Thorough  cultivation  every  ten  days 
throughout  the  season  is  the  best  known  substitute 
for  irrigation,  and  should  be  vigorously  maintained 
up  to  the  time  the  fruit  ripens,  at  least. 

A  cultivator  which  will  cut  the  suckers  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  a  great  aid,  unless  plants  are 
to  be  grown  for  sale  or  for  further  planting.  Two 
such  implements  are  described  in  the  introductory 
chapter.  A  spring -tooth  cultivator,  drawn  by  either 


116  BUSH-FRUITS 

one  or  two  horses  (Fig.  24),  is  a  most  useful  tool  for 
blackberry  plantations. 

Mulching  proves  very  satisfactory  where  the  con- 
ditions are  favorable.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
home  garden,  where  patches  are  likely  to  be  small 
and  inconveniently  cultivated.  There  is  sometimes  a 
tendency  to  induce  too  late  fall  growth,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  inferior  to  cultivation,  for  a  cessation  of 


Fig.  24.     Tilling  blackberries  with  spring-tooth  cultivator. 

tillage   practically  removes  the    soil -mulch,  at  least  if 
rains  follow  soon  to  pack  the  surface. 

Mention  should  again  be  made  of  the  good  results 
obtained  by  the  system  of  mulching  adopted  by  M. 
A.  Thayer,  of  Sparta,  Wis.  This  consists  in  growing 
clover,  in  a  field  by  itself,  which  is  cut  when  in  bloom 
and  applied  along  the  rows,  the  central  space  being 
kept  thoroughly  cultivated.  Of  course  this  is  but  one 
of  the  factors  which  have  contributed  to  the  success 
attained  on  the  farm  mentioned,  but  the  method  as  a 
whole  has  led  to  some  phenomenal  yields. 


SUMMER    PRUNING  117 

PRUNING 

Pruning  the  blackberry  is  a  very  simple  operation, 
if  done  at  the  proper  time;  but  if  neglected  at  the 
time  when  it  should  be  done  the  results  can  never  be 
satisfactory.  The  only  summer  pruning  required  is 
to  pinch  the  growing  cane  once,  at  from  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  from  the  ground.  There  need  be 


Fig.  25.     Low  training  of  blackberries. 

no  fear  of  pinching  too  low,  for  the  cane  elongates 
considerably  after  being  clipped,  if  still  young,  and 
the  result  is  a  much  better  formed  bush  than  if  al- 
lowed to  get  three  or  four  feet  high  before  being  cut. 
I  wish  to  reiterate  the  caution  to  pinch  back  the  canes 
when  they  get  to  the  desired  height.  It  makes  a  vast 
difference  to  the  future  growth  of  a  bush  whether  the 
tip  is  clipped  off  when  it  gets  two  feet  high  or 
whether  it  is  allowed  to  grow  to  four  feet  and  then 
cut  back  to  two  feet.  Fig.  25  shows  a  model  planta- 
tion of  Early  Harvest  blackberries,  pinched  back  to 


118  BUSH-FRUITS 

less  than  three  feet  and  supported  by  a  wire.  At  the 
spring  pruning  the  laterals  are  cut  back  to  from  one 
to  two  feet  in  length.  This  is  an  operation  demand- 
ing much  judgment,  for  it  is  a  fruit- thinning  process. 
Too  close  pruning  will  dimmish  the  yield,  too  little 
will  allow  more  fruit  to  set  than  can  be  properly  ma- 
tured. Not  all  varieties  are  alike  in  fruiting -habit. 
The  Taylor,  one  of  the  best  all-round  varieties  in  cul- 
tivation, does  not  bear  fruit  close  to  the  main  stem. 
Four  to  eight  buds  at  the  base  of  the  branches  usually 
produce  no  flowers.  Unbranched  canes  often  fail  to 
develop  flowers  within  two  feet  of  the  ground.  Close 
pruning  of  this  variety,  therefore,  will  take  away  most 
of  the  fruit.  Other  varieties  under  observation  bore 
flowers  within  three  or  four  buds  of  the  main  stem. 
Erie  is  said  to  behave  like  Taylor  in  this  respect  and 
Early  Harvest  is  said  to  bear  its  fruit -buds  near  the 
main  stem  at  times  and  near  the  tips  at  others. 
It  is,  therefore,  better  to  defer  spring  pruning  until 
the  buds  develop,  unless  the  grower  is  sure  of  his 
ground. 

In  the  West,  where  moisture  is  deficient,  growers 
often  prefer  to  do  no  summer  clipping,  merely  cutting 
back  the  main  canes  in  spring  to  three  or  four  feet  in 
height.  The  plan  is  particularly  applicable  to  varieties 
which  overbear. 

As  with  the  'other  brambles,  the  old  canes  are 
best  removed  as  soon  as  through  fruiting,  while 
they  are  more  easily  cut,  thereby  disposing  of  what- 
ever fungus  spores  and  insects  may  be  harboring 
about  them. 


GATHERING    THE   FRUIT  119 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

Despite  the  thorny  character  of  the  bushes,  black- 
berries are  among  the  easiest  gathered  of  any  of  the 
small -fruits.  The  fruit  when  well  grown  is  large, 
easily  picked,  fills  up  fast,  and  hence  is  pleasing  to  the 
pickers.  A  word  of  caution  in  regard  to  two  things 
may  be  needed.  The  first  is  never  to  leave  the  fruit  in 
the  sun  after  being  picked,  as  a  few  minutes'  exposure 
to  hot  sunshine  will  turn  it  red  and  render  it  more  or 
less  bitter  and  unpalatable.  The  next  point  is  not  to 
pick  it  until  ripe.  The  cultivated  blackberry  has  been 
called  upon  to  bear  much  undeserved  slander  and  dis- 
repute, simply  because  it  has  a  habit  of  turning  black 
before  it  is  ripe.  The  result  is,  that  oftener  than  other- 
wise the  berries  are  picked  green,  and  consumers,  sup- 
posing them  to  be  ripe  because  they  are  black,  growl 
because  they  are  sour  or  sometimes  bitter.  For  distant 
markets  this  cannot  be  wholly  avoided,  as  the  fruit 
must  be  picked  while  still  firm,  even  at  the  expense  of 
quality.  For  home  use,  however,  if  left  till  the  bees 
begin  to  eat  them,  there  will  be  no  cause  for  complaint 
at  the  quality  of  the  cultivated  blackberry. 

The  fruit  is  marketed  either  in  pint  or  in  quart 
baskets,  as  best  suits  the  fancy  of  the  selected  market. 
The  blackberry  is  a  fruit  which  usually  meets  with  a 
ready  sale  at  good  prices,  and  one  which  handles  well. 
Many  small  inland  towns  and  villages  consume  very 
considerable  quantities  of  this  fruit  at  prices  which 
are  eminently  satisfactory  to  the  grower. 


120  BUSH-FRUITS 

USES 

Dried  blackberries  are  nearly  always  quoted  in  mar 
ket,  yet,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,*  none 
are  grown  for  that  purpose,  the  supply  coming  almost 
wholly  from  the  South,  where  the  wild  berries  are 
gathered  and  are  dried  in  the  sun.  They  are  usually 
poor  in  quality,  and  quoted  at  a  price  which  would 
render  it  unprofitable  to  dry  them  if  there  were  a 
market  for  fresh  fruit.  In  order  to  learn  something  of 
their  adaptability  for  this  purpose,  eight  well -filled 
quart  baskets  just  as  we  were  selling  them  fresh,  were 
taken  for  experiment.  They  were  made  to  correspond 
in  weight,  so  that  each  quart,  with  the  basket,  weighed 
one  and  one -half  pounds.  Deducting  the  weight  of  the 
baskets  left  five  pounds  ten  and  one -half  ounces  of 
fruit  in  each  of  two  lots  of  four  quarts.  Granulated 
sugar  was  freely  sprinkled  over  one  lot.  Four  ounces 
of  sugar  was  thus  used,  one  ounce  to  each  quart, 
making  the  weight  of  this  lot  plus  the  sugar  five 
pounds  'fourteen  and  one -half  ounces.  Both  lots  were 
put  in  the  greenhouse  to  dry  August  3,  on  wire 
screens,  and  covered  with  mosquito  netting  to  keep 
away  the  flies.  After  one  or  two  days  of  sunshine, 
there  came  several  cloudy  ones,  and  the  berries  be- 
gan to  mold,  so  that  the  netting  had  to  be  removed. 
Those  treated  with  sugar  molded  less  than  the  others, 
and  stuck  to  the  screens  less  in  drying.  August  12 
both  lots  were  taken  up  and  weighed.  They  appeared 

*f  ro-1  ^Y.  ^-H.  Bull.  57,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.' 


DRYING   BLACKBERRIES  121 

to  be  as  dry  as  raspberries  usually  are  when  put  into 
the  curing  room,  but  quickly  began  to  mold  again  when 
put  in  a  pile  together.  The  four  quarts  dried  without 
sugar  weighed  at  this  date  one  pound  ten  and  one -half 
ounces.  The  four  quarts  dried  with  sugar  weighed 
one  pound  fifteen  and  one -half  ounces.  From  these 
weights,  it  appears  that  not  over  twelve  to  fourteen 
pounds  of  dried  fruit  to  the  bushel  can  be  expected. 
The  weight  of  sugar  applied  seems  to  be  retained,  and 
possibly  increases  the  weight  slightly  in  addition,  by 
retaining  more  of  the  juices  of  the  fruit.  Those  treated 
with  sugar  seemed  to  remain  in  a  softer  and  better 
condition  for  cooking.  Judging  from  this  attempt,  the 
blackberry  dries  very  slowly,  and  under  present  Condi- 
tions, at  least,  there  seems  to  be  little  promise  that  it 
can  be  profitably  grown  for  evaporating  purposes.  The 
quality  of  dried  blackberries  is  low.  They  seem  to  be 
lacking  in  sugar  and  pronounced  qualities.  Yet  the 
addition  of  sugar  in  drying  and  the  perfection  of 
methods  of  evaporating  may  enable  the  grower  to 
utilize  the  surplus  crop  to  advantage.  The  chief  hin- 
drance to  such  an  industry  at  present  is  the  cheap 
and  inferior  southern  product. 

Although  it  seems  necessary  that  the  fruit  should 
reach  the  consumer  while  fresh,  its  value  in  household 
uses  is  not  so  fully  appreciated  as  it  should  be. 
Ancient  writers  were  inclined  to  lay  great  stress  on 
the  medicinal  qualities  of  all  plants  and  fruits,  and 
while  we  are  wont  to  smile  at  many  of  the  supposed 
virtues  there  recorded,  we  might  well  profit  by  studying 
more  closely  the  uses  and  virtues  of  the  blackberry. 


122  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  value  of  blackberry  wine  or  brandy  in  bowel 
troubles  is  well  known.  It  is  reported  that  blackber- 
ries preserved  in  one  of  these  forms  were  found  by 
army  surgeons  to  be  the  only  sure  and  sovereign 
remedy  against  chronic  diarrhoea,  proving  effectual 
whenever  taken  in  time,  even  after  all  other  medicines 
had  failed.  If  the  previously  prepared  wine  or  brandy 
is  not  available,  the  water  from  blackberry  roots 
freshly  dug  and  steeped,  will  usually  serve  the  pur- 
pose equally  well.  This,  though  an  old-time  household 
remedy,  has  lost  none  of  its  effectiveness  with  the 
passage  of  time. 

Various  recipes  are  given  for  the  manufacture  of 
wine>  one  of  which  I  copy  from  an  early  edition  of  "  The 
Gardener's  Monthly."  "Express  the  juice  through 
a  thick  cloth,  to  prevent  any  pulp  mixing  with  it.  To 
one  quart  of  juice  add  two  quarts  of  soft  water  (cold) 
and  three  pounds  of  sugar.  Let  it  then  stand  in  a 
wide -mouthed  vessel,  until  fermentation  ceases,  which 
will  be  sometimes  after  two  months.  Be  careful  while 
fermentation  is  going  on  to  keep  the  film  skimmed 
clear  from  the  top  of  the  liquid  daily,  and  to  keep  the 
vessel  full  to  the  top.  A  small  vessel  of  the  liquid 
should  be  kept  for  filling  up  the  large  vessels  as  the 
skimmings  are  removed.  When  fermentation  ceases, 
strain  the  wine  into  bottles.  The  wine  keeps  better 
in  large  quantities,  and  to  that  end  put  it  into  large 
stone  jugs,  corking  and  sealing  them." 

Another  recipe  adds  a  quart  of  boiling  water  to 
every  gallon  of  the  crushed  fruit,  before  expressing  the 
juice,  instead  of  adding  cold  water  afterwards.  It  also 


BLACKBERRY    WINE  123 

adds  the  white  of  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth  and  stirred 
into  the  juice;  spices  are  also  enclosed  in  a  cloth  bag, 
and  dropped  into  it. 

Formerly  there  was  a  market  for  good  blackberry 
wine  at  $2  to  $3  per  gallon  for  medicinal  uses,  and 
if  a  glut  of  fresh  fruit  occurred,  it  could  be  turned  into 
wine  to  good  advantage,  but  in  recent  years  it  seems 
to  have  been  largely  replaced  in  practice  by  other 
medicines  and  stimulants,  and  there  is  little  demand 
for  it. 

Probably  the  greatest  value  of  the  blackberry, 
however,  is  not  so  much  as  a  medicine  to  cure  dis- 
ease, as  in  its  healthfulness  when  used  as  a  food. 
Perhaps  nothing  is  more  conducive  to  health  and 
good  spirits  than  fresh,  well  ripened  fruit,  and 
among  all  fruits  there  is  none  better  adapted  to  ac- 
complish this  much  wished -for  end  than  the  bright, 
shining,  and  luscious  blackberry.  Not  a  home  in 
all  our  land  should  be  without  it  in  abundance. 

DURATION     OF     PLANTATIONS 

The  profitable  duration  of  a  blackberry  plantation, 
as  with  all  other  small  fruits,  depends  much  on  the 
care  and  management.  They  generally  last  longer 
than  black  raspberries,  perhaps  from  five  to  ten  years 
on  the  average,  longer  in  special  cases.  Attempts  to 
lengthen  the  lifetime  of  a  fruit  plantation  of  any  kind 
are  rarely  profitable.  It  is  better  to  force  the  plants 
to  do  their  best,  get  what  can  be  gotten  from  them 
before  they  begin  to  decline,  then  let  them  go,  to  be 


124  BUSH-FRUITS 

replaced  by  others.  If  by  one  system  of  management 
a  plant  can  be  induced  to  produce  as  much  in  three 
years  as  it  ordinarily  would  in  five,  take  the  three- 
year  return  every  time,  no  matter  if  at  the  end  of 
that  time  the  plant  is  exhausted  and  no  longer  prof- 
itable. Others  are  ready  to  take  its  place,  on  other 
ground,  and  to  continue  the  high -pressure  production. 
The  greater  the  yield,  within  limits,  the  greater  the 
profit  and  the  more  fun  there  is  in  the  business. 

KILLING     THE     PLANTS 

When  a  plantation  has  passed  its  usefulness  it  may 
become  a  difficult  task  to  get  rid  of  it.  The  capacity 
of  the  plants  for  throwing  up  shoots  from  broken 
roots  is  then  brought  into  full  play,  and  they  make 
a  vigorous  fight  for  life.  If  the  cultivator  hesitates 
or  wavers  he  will  surely  lose  the  day.  In  general,  the 
most  practicable  method  of  exterminating  them  is  to 
mow  off  and  burn  the  bushes,  and  plow  deep,  di- 
rectly after  fruiting.  Thorough  harrowing  with  a 
spring -tooth  harrow  will  then  tear  out  many  of  the 
stumps.  From  that  time,  all  shoots  should  be  kept 
down  by  some  system  of  cultivation  which  will  cut 
them  off  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Replow- 
ing  some  two  months  later  will  often  be  found  a 
help.  While  some  shoots  may  appear  the  following 
year,  with  this  system  of  treatment  they  will  cause 
no  serious  trouble  in  the  cultivation  of  any  ordinary 
crop.  If  the  land  is  to  be  used  for  fine  or  delicate 
crops,  the  stumps  will  need  to  be  removed. 


RESISTANCE    TO    CLIMATE  125 

HARDINESS 

Since  the  difference  between  a  full  crop,  with  good 
profits,  and  no  crop,  with  utter  loss,  may  depend  on 
hardiness  alone,  it  is  a  matter  of  no  little  importance. 
In  the  climate  of  central  New  York  varieties  like 
Brunton's  Early,  Topsy,  and  usually  Wilson's  Early 
and  Wilson  Junior,  are  almost  sure  to  kill  to  the 
ground  every  winter,  while  Taylor,  Agawam,  Stone's 
Hardy,  Snyder,  etc.,  are  slightly  or  not  at  all  injured. 

In  many  sections  of  the  West  and  Northwest,  as 
Colorado,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  etc.,  none  of  the 
varieties  prove  hardy  without  winter  protection  and, 
curiously  enough,  the  matter  of  selection  for  hardiness 
becomes  of  less  import  there  than  in  milder  climates. 
The  ability  to  endure  summer  heat  is  there  the  im- 
portant consideration.  If  plants  are  to  remain  un- 
protected during  the  winter,  the  selection  of  varieties 
should  be  largely  influenced  by  the  question  of  hardi- 
ness. The  method  of  protection  is  described  in  the 
introductory  chapter. 

YIELD 

The  blackberries  are  undoubtedly  the  best  yielders 
among  members  of  the  bramble  family.  Not  only  do 
they  yield  well  when  growing  wild  among  the  rocks  and 
woods,  and  even  under  worse  conditions  which  may 
sometimes  pass  under  the  name  of  cultivation,  but  they 
respond  promptly  and  generously  to  liberal  care  and 
attention.  In  answer  to  a  request  for  an  estimate  of 


126  BUSH-FRUITS 

what  each  considered  an  average  yield  per  acre  of 
blackberries,  fifty  growers  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  gave  replies  varying  from  1,280  to  10,000 
quarts,  the  average  being  3,158  quarts,  or  over  ninety- 
eight  bushels  per  acre.  These  figures,  obtained  as  they 
were  from  the  practical  growers  themselves,  who  had  no 
incentive  to  misrepresent  their  estimates,  are  worthy  of 
credence.  To  be  sure,  some  of  the  estimates  are  very 
high,  but  others  are  extremely  low,  and  the  average  is 
considerably  below  the  yield  which  many  good  growers 
are  securing.  It  is  safe  to  say,  therefore,  that  any 
grower  whose  yields  fall  much  below  this  average  is  not 
living  up  to  his  possibilities,  and  unless  some  uncon- 
trollable disease  or  insect  is  preying  upon  his  planta- 
tion, there  is  something  wrong  with  his  system  of  man- 
agement, or  his  location  is  unfavorable. 

A  point  which  those  engaged  in  all  lines  of  agri- 
cultural production  need  to  appreciate  more  and  more, 
is  that  the  bulk  of  any  crop  is  required  to  defray  the 
actual  cost  of  production,  and  that  it  is  only  beyond 
this  limit  that  any  profit  lies.  As  an  illustration,  sup- 
pose that  by  ordinary  methods  of  cultivation  an  acre  of 
blackberries  produces  seventy  bushels,  and  that  sixty 
bushels  are  required  to  repay  the  cost  of  production. 
Now,  if  by  judiciously  increasing  the  cost  of  production 
to  seventy  bushels  by  more  liberal  fertilizing  or  better 
cultivation,  we  can  increase  the  yield  to  ninety  bushels, 
the  profit  is  doubled.  Nor  does  this  fully  express  the 
difference,  for  with  an  additional  expense  equivalent  to 
ten  bushels,  we  have  secured  an  additional  profit  of  ten 
bushels,  and  the  additional  outlay  has  paid  a  return  of 


THE  MARGIN  OF  PROFIT          127 

one  hundred  per  cent  on  the  investment,  while  the  first 
ten  bushels  only  pay  sixteen  and  two -thirds  per  cent  on 
the  investment.  In  other  words,  one  acre  under  the 
second  management  is  much  better  than  two  acres  under 
the  first,  for  it  is  equivalent  to  growing  the  second  acre 
with  an  outlay  equal  to  only  ten  bushels,  instead  of  an 
outlay  equal  to  sixty  bushels.  This  reasoning  may 
sound  theoretical  and  visionary,  but  it  is  just  the 
kind  of  operations  which  are  being  carried  on  all  the 
time.  It  is  just  this  sort  of  differences,-  too,  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  man  who  is  making  a  success  of  farming 
or  fruit-growing  from  the  man  who  only  keeps  even  or 
runs  behind.  We  should  realize  that  only  in  the  last 
bushels  of  the  crop  the  profit  lies. 

PROFITS 

Reliable  figures  as  to  the  cost  and  profits  of  farm 
crops  are  very  difficult  to  obtain,  for  the  reason  that  so 
few  growers  keep  any  records,  or  know  what  their  crops 
cost  them.  Of  the  few  who  do  keep  accurate  accounts, 
not  many  put  the  results  in  print,  where  they  may  be 
accessible  to  others.  Anything  said  on  this  subject, 
therefore,  must  be  very  largely  in  the  nature  of  esti- 
mates. For  ordinary  farm  conditions  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction per  acre  may  be  roughly  estimated  somewhat 

as  follows: 

FIRST  YEAR 

Rent  of  land $5  00 

Plants 15  00 

Fertilizers  .  20  00 


$40  00 


128  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  other  expenses  of  the  first  year,  including  set- 
ting and  care  of  the  plants,  should  be  offset  by  the 
return  from  the  crop  which  may  be  planted  between  the 
rows  to  utilize  the  ground  not  yet  occupied  by  the 
berry  plants.  We  may  at  least  expect  the  plantation 
to  bear  four  profitable  crops  of  fruit,  so  that  dividing 
the  first  year's  expense  by  four,  the  cost  for  subsequent 
years,  exclusive  of  picking  and  marketing,  may  be 
estimated  somewhat  as  follows: 

Proportion  of  first  year's  expense $10  00 

Eent  of  land 5  00 

Fertilizers 20  00 

Cultivation  and  hoeing 10  00 

Pruning 5  00      . 

Removing  old  canes 5  00 

Add  to  cover  deficiencies    .                                  ,  10  00 


$65  00 

The  second  year,  the  crop,  which  is  but  a  partial  one, 
should  about  meet  expenses.  After  that,  let  us  place 
the  yield  at  the  average  obtained  from  the  replies 
already  referred  to,  which  is  3,158  quarts.  If  these  can 
be  made  to  net  five  cents  a  quart  after  deducting  the 
cost  of  picking  and  marketing,  the  net  return  will  be 
$157.90,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  a  little  more  than  $90 
per  acre.  If  they  can  be  made  to  net  only  four  cents, 
the  net  return  will  be  but  $126.32,  leaving  a  profit 
of  but  little  more  than  $60  per  acre. 

In  connection  with  this,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing 
what  can  be  done  by  a  thorough -going,  energetic  man, 
let  us  compare  the  following  close  estimate  made  by 
M.  A.  Thayer,  of  Sparta,  Wisconsin: 


HOW   THAYER    DOES   IT  129 


ONE  ACRE— FIRST  YEAR 

Plowing  ground $1  50 

Harrowing  five  times 2  50 

Rolling  and  marking 1  00 

2,000  Ancient  Briton  plants 40  00 

Setting  plants 7  50 

Cultivating  ten  times 3  75 

Hoeing  six  times 6  00 

Laying  down  for  winter 2  50 


First  year's  expense .  $64  75 


SECOND  YEAR 

Taking  up  plants  in  spring $1  25 

400  new  plants  to  replace  dead  ones 8  00 

Setting  400  plants 2  00 

60  posts  at  six  cents .  3  60 

270  stakes  at  two  cents           5  40 

•    380  rods  No.  12  wire 12  60 

Setting  posts  and  stakes 5  00 

Stringing  wire 2  50 

Cultivating  ten  times 3  75 

Hoeing  four  times 4  00 

Two  loads  clover  mulching 8  00 

Placing  clover  mulching 3  15 

Pinching-back 2  50 

Laying  down  for  winter 7  50 

Use  of  tools,  etc .  6  00 

Total  for  two  years $140  00 

After  the  second  year  the  annual  expense  is  esti- 
mated as  follows: 


130  BUSH-FRUITS 

Taking  up  plants  in  the  spring    .....    .    .  $2  50 

Cultivating  and  hoeing     .........    .    .  8  00 

Mulching  ..................  12  00 

Nipping-back  and  trimming  .........  5  00 

Laying  down  for  winter  ...........  7  50 

Tools,  etc  ..................  5  00 

$40  00 

The  estimates  for  labor  are  made  on  the  basis  of 
paying  $1.25  per  day  for  men  and  $2.50  per  day  for  a 
man  and  team.  The  system  of  mulching,  as  elsewhere 
explained,  consists  in  growing  clover  on  separate  pieces 
of  ground,  cutting  and  spreading  it  green  along  the 
rows,  and  cultivating  the  center.  The  expenses  of 
gathering  and  marketing,  Mr.  Thayer  places  as  fol- 
lows: 

Picking  per  quart    .............  $0 

Boxes  and  cases  ..............        01 

Packing  and  selling    ............        01 


Total  expense  per  quart    ........  $0  03%    • 

Mr.  Thayer  admits  that  these  figures  show  a  high 
cost  of  production,  but  feels  confident  that  any  reduc- 
tion means  diminished  profits,  therefore  is  not  to  be 
permitted.  This  method  of  treatment  gave  over  2,000 
bushels  from  ten  acres  of  the  Ancient  Briton  variety  in 
one  year.  This  is,  of  course,  a  remarkable  yield,  but 
the  average  on  those  farms  is  unquestionably  far  above 
that  of  most  growers.  Mr.  Thayer  concludes  that 
under  their  conditions  at  that  time,  a  yield  of  200 
bushels  per  acre  gave  a  net  profit  of  nearly  $250  per 
acre,  while  100  bushels  per  acre  would  give  about 


PROBABLE    PROFITS  131 

$80  profit,  and  fifty  bushels  per  acre  little  or  no  profit 
at  all. 

Instances  are  common  of  admirable  yields  during  a 
single  season.  One  grower  in  a  small  town  in  central 
New  York  sold  $500  worth  of  fruit  from  half  an  acre 
in  a  recent  year.  It  should  be  firmly  fixed  in  mind  that 
all  such  results  are  exceptional,  and  no  one  should  use 
them  as  a  basis  for  average  profits. 

I  think  it  may  safely  be  said,  however,  that  with  a 
good  market,  good  management,  intelligence  and  skill, 
both  in  growing  and  marketing  the  fruit,  a  profit  of 
$100  per  acre  can  be  expected  with  a  fair  degree  of 
certainty. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DEWBERRIES 

The  dewberry  as  a  cultivated  fruit  has  been  such 
a  recent  introduction  to  American  horticulture  that 
as  yet  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  a  history. 

At  the  summer  meeting  of  the  Fruit -Growers7 
Society  of  Western  New  York,  held  June  24,  1863, 
James  Vick  described  the  dewberries  grown  by  Dr. 
Miner,  of  Honeoye  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  his  method  of 
training  them.  This  was  the  same  as  the  present 
method  of  tying  the  fruiting  canes  to  stakes  about 
five  feet  high,  and  allowing  the  new  growth  to  run 
at  will,  most  of  which  will  root  at  the  tips.  He  was 
growing  two  varieties,  one  of  which  was  some  ten 
days  earlier  than  the  other.  Mention  is  made  of  the 
fact  that  the  berries  of  the  earlier  variety  were  some- 
times imperfect,  "a  common  fault  with  the  dewberry." 
The  other  variety  appeared  to  bear  uniformly  perfect 
berries.*  From  a  later  mention  of  these  varietiest  it 
seems  that  they  were  sent  out  by  Dr.  Miner  to  some 
extent,  but  there  is  no.  evidence  that  they  ever  received 
varietal  names,  and  therefore  they  were  probably 
soon  lost  to  cultivation. 

It  appears  that  the  Bartel  was  the  first  named  va- 


*Hovey's  Mag.  of  Hort.  1863,  p.  319. 
tlbid,  1868,  p.  286. 

(132) 


DEWBERRY  HISTORY  133 

riety  introduced.  The  originator's  account  of  this, 
together  with  directions  for  its  management,  were 
given  in  Purdy's  Fruit  Recorder  for  1875,  p.  182. 
It  does  not  appear  to  have  become  very  generally 
known  at  that  time,  for  in  1879  the  editor  of  "The 
Gardener's  Monthly"  writes,*  "Of  true  dewberries,  no 
improved  kinds  are  known  under  culture."  In  a  pre- 
vious number  of  the  same  volume,  however,  N.  H. 
Lindsay,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  is  reported  as  having 
cultivated  two  kinds  of  wild  dewberries  in  a  small 
way  for  home  use,  taking  plants  from  the  woods. 
It  seems  that  even  he  did  not  know  how  to  propa- 
gate them,  although  a  nurseryman  and  presumably  an 
experienced  propagator. 

Even  as  late  as  1884  the  editor  of  "The  Country  Gen- 
tleman" says  (page  329) :  "We  are  not  aware  that  the 
dewberry  (or  running  brier)  is  cultivated  for  sale  by 
any  nurseryman.  *  *  *  The  wild  dewberry  is  often 
found  along  neglected  fence -rows  or  in  rocky  or  sterile 
fields,  from  which,  if  desired,  it  may  be  transplanted 
to  gardens,  and  treated  like  garden  raspberries."  These 
statements  serve  to  show  how  recent  is  the  cultivation 
of  the  dewberry  in  anything  like  a  commercial  extent. 
It  was  not  until  the  introduction  of  the  Lucre tia,  which 
was  brought  into  general  notice  about  1886,  that  the 
dewberry  began  to  occupy  any  prominent  place  in 
American  horticulture. 

So  much  for  the  history  of  the  dewberry.  But  what 
of  its  future?  Is  there  a  place  for  it  among  our  garden 

*Gardener's  Monthly,  Vol.  21,  p.  150.    See  Bailey,  Bui.  34,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 
for  a  sketch  of  dewberry  history. 


134  BUSH-FRUITS 

fruits;  and  if  so,  will  it  prove  equal  to  the  occasion  and 
able  to  fill  it  properly  ?  Coming,  as  it  does,  so  early  in 
the  season,  before  the  first  blackberries  are  ripe,  the 
first  question  may  be  fairly  answered  in  the  affirmative. 
It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  as  we  find  it,  the  dew- 
berry is  unqualified  to  fill  properly  the  place  which  its 
co -laborers  in  the  garden  are  ready  to  accede  to  it,  and 
unless  it  can  be  induced  to  correct  some  of  its  bad 
habits  and  overcome  its  failings,  the  place  is  even  yet 
likely  to  be  taken  by  some  young,  vigorous  and  early  - 
ripening  blackberry.  One  serious  though  excusable 
fault  of  the  dewberry  is  its  rough  exterior  and  uncul- 
tured behavior.  It  will  wound  a  friend  upon  the 
slightest  provocation,  with  no  thought  of  an  apology. 
Yet,  bad  as  its  thorns  are,  this  is  not  its  most  serious 
failing.  Like  many  other  young  people,  it  is  not  given 
to  steady,  industrious  habits.  It  makes  large  and 
glowing  promises,  but  too  often  fails  to  fulfil  them.  It 
must  be  said  in  palliation  of  its  shortcomings,  however, 
that  the  dewberry  has  not  had  fair  treatment.  The 
energetic,  industrious  and  aspiring  ones  have  been 
compelled  to  associate  with  the  idle  and  thriftless. 
While  lack  of  fertilization  and  consequent  production 
of  imperfect  fruit  can  hardly  be  denied  as  a  family 
trait,  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  more  productive  mem- 
bers have  suffered  unjustly,  owing  to  the  behavior  of 
the  rogues  of  the  household.  There  is  no  disputing  the 
fact  that  stock  of  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  as  sold  about 
the  country,  has  been  badly  mixed.  As  received  and 
grown  at  the  Cornell  gardens,  it  comprises  two  distinct 
sorts,  one  with  small  blossoms,  more  delicate  growth, 


IMPROVEMENT  NEEDED  135 

and  small,  imperfect  and  worthless  fruit;  the  other 
with  large  blossoms,  vigorous  growth,  large,  plump  and 
glossy  fruit.  The  cuts  (Figs.  26  and  27)  well  illustrate 
the  difference  between  these  two  types,  which  is  in  itself 
a  ready  explanation  of  many  of  the  conflicting  opinions 
regarding  the  Lucre tia. 

By  taking  the  best  of  what  we  already  have  as  a 
basis  for  future  improvement,  there  seems  to  be  no 
reason  why  the  dewberry  may  not  be  brought  to  such 
a  state  of  perfection  as  shall  render  its  place  as- 
sured. In  the  Wilson's  Early  and  Wilson  Junior 
blackberries  we  have  a  type  intermediate  between  the 
dewberry  and  the  blackberry.  This  form  may  sug- 
gest lines  of  breeding  which  in  time  shall  produce  off- 
spring far  superior  to  anything  which  we  now  have, 
either  in  the  blackberry  or  the  dewberry.  We  need 
more  careful  and  skillful  breeders,  who  shall  breed 
plants  as  understandingly  as  animals  are  bred,  and 
who  shall  give  us  in  the  results  of  their  toil  the  fruit 
treasures  which  ought  ere  this  to  have  been  ours. 

SOIL   FOR   DEWBERRIES 

The  dewberry  is  very  largely  found  on  poor  or 
sandy  soils  the  country  over.  This  in  itself  is  a 
decided  indication  that  comparatively  light,  sandy 
soils  will  prove  best  adapted  to  its  cultivation,  and 
the  general  experience  of  growers  throughout  the 
country  seems  to  substantiate  the  supposition.  It  is 
true  that  instances  are  reported  of  success  from  nearly 
all  kinds  of  soils,  but  the  best  results  nearly  always 


Fig.  26.     Lucretia  from  a  good  plant.     The  separate  fruit  is  full  size. 


SOIL  AND   LOCATION 


137 


Fig.  27.    Lucretia  from  a  poor  plant.    One-half  natural  size. 

come    from    planting    on    comparatively    light,    sandy 
ground. 

LOCATION 

The  location  will  probably  prove  to  be  fully  as  im- 
portant as  with   any  other   fruit,  when   the  culture  of 


138  BUSH-FRUITS 

dewberries  comes  to  be  better  understood.  In  parts 
of  the  West,  the  Windom  has  been  found  to  give 
better  results  in  shady  locations,  the  finest  berries 
being  found  even  in  dense  shade.  Because  of  its 
habit  of  growing  on  dry,  sandy  ground,  location  to 
avoid  drought  may  not  be  so  important  as  with  the 
blackberry,  but  any  location,  like  a  cool  northern  ex- 
posure, which  will  tend  to  mitigate  the  hot,  scorching 
sun,  will  undoubtedly  prove  beneficial. 

FERTILIZERS 

Thus  far  the  necessity  for  fertilizers  has  hardly 
been  made  apparent,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  at 
the  time  of  planting  they  are  ever  advisable.  Still,  if 
plants  are  as  productive  as  they  should  be,  a  judicious 
application  of  fertilizers,  after  they  have  borne  two  or 
three  crops  of  fruit,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of  advan- 
tage. This  will  be  especially  true,  of  course,  if  they 
are  growing  on  light,  poor  soil.  Probably  the  same 
materials  will  be  found  satisfactory  for  them  as  for 
other  members  of  the  genus.  The  kind  used,  and  the 
proportion  of  the  different  fertilizing  elements  needed, 
as  in  all  cases,  can  best  be  determined  by  individual 
experiment.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  is  not  likely  to  be  required. 

PROPAGATION 

As  before  stated,  the  dewberry  propagates  naturally 
from  tips,  like  the  black  raspberry.  If  it  is  desirable 
to  propagate  them  to  any  extent,  attention  must  be 


PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING  139 

given  to  burying  these  tips  in  the  ground  at  the 
proper  time,  which  is  when  they  have  about  completed 
their  growth.  I  am  not  aware  that  it  is  ever  recom- 
mended to  cover  the  whole  cane,  to  induce  it  to  throw 
out  roots  along  the  entire  length,  but  this  could  un- 
doubtedly be  done,  and  the  cane  cut  into  pieces  to 
form  plants,  if  desirable  to  propagate  as  speedily  as 
possible.  The  prostrate  habit  of  the  plant  would 
favor  such  a  method,  but  it  is  hardly  to  be  recom- 
mended in  ordinary  cases. 

Dewberries  can  also  be  propagated  by  root  cuttings, 
the  same  as  blackberries.  The  method  for  doing  this 
is  explained  in  the  chapter  on  blackberries.  Since  it 
is  a  general  rule,  however,  that  those  plants  which 
naturally  propagate  by  suckers  also  propagate  most 
easily  by  root -cuttings,  a  little  more  care  may  be  de- 
manded, and  a  larger  percentage  of  failure  may  be 
expected  than  with  blackberries. 

PLANTING 

The  same  general  rules  given  for  the  planting  of 
the  blackberry  will  also  apply  to  the  dewberry,  except 
that  the  furrow  to  receive  the  plants  need  not  be  quite 
so  deep.  The  question  of  the  distance  apart  at  which 
they  are  to  be  placed  will  be  largely  determined  by 
the  method  of  training  to  be  employed.  If  to  be 
trained  to  single  stakes,  four  feet  apart  each  way  will 
be  found  satisfactory;  if  to  wire  trellises,  six  feet  by 
perhaps  three  feet  in  the  row  will  be  more  convenient. 
If  to  be  trained  on  low,  flat,  slat  or  wire  trellises,  even 


140  BUSH-FRUITS 

a  greater  distance  between  the  rows  will  be  needed. 
One  of  the  objections  to  this  method  is  that  more 
space  is  demanded  for  training  the  plants  than  is 
needed  for  their  maintenance. 

The  great  tendency  of  the  dewberries  to  fail  to  set 
fruit  altogether,  or  to  produce  small  and  imperfect  fruit, 
is  a  point  which  should  always  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation when  planting.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
this  is  often  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  fertilization. 
Whether  this  lack  of  fertilization  comes  from  insuf- 
ficient pollination,  or  from  lack  of  potency  of  the 
pollen  which  reaches  the  stigma,  is  uncertain.  What- 
ever the  cause,  the  lack  is  apparent,  and  the  most 
feasible  way  of  overcoming  it  is  by  planting  different 
kinds  together  in  close  proximity.  It  has  been  con- 
clusively shown  that  the  pollen  of  many  varieties  of 
our  larger  fruit,  notably  pears  and  apples,  has  not 
the  powder  to  properly  fertilize  the  pistils  of  the  same 
variety.  The  same  may  be  true  of  the  dewberries. 
At  any  rate,  better  results  seem  to  have  come  from 
planting  more  than  one  kind  together.  Even  black- 
berries planted  alongside  have  seemed  to  produce  a 
favorable  effect  in  some  cases.  One  instance  is  re- 
ported* where  dewberries  blossomed  full  for  several 
years,  but  produced  only  a  few  imperfect  berries. 
Later  a  block  of  blackberries  was  planted  beside 
them,  and  when  these  came  into  bearing,  the  dew- 
berries began  fruiting,  and  continued  to  do  so  regu- 
larly. This  is  an  indication,  though  not  proof,  that 
blackberry  pollen  may  fertilize  dewberries. 


"Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.,  1886:  382. 


TILLAGE  AND   TRAINING  14 J 


TILLAGE 

Nothing  special  need  be  said  concerning  the  tillage 
of  the  dewberry.  Some  growers  even  advise  letting 
them  grow  entirely  without  cultivation  or  care.  This 
method  can  hardly  recommend  itself  for  any  systematic 
culture  for  profit,  unless  it  be  on  some  rough,  unculti- 
vable  and  otherwise  unutilized  piece  of  ground.  As 
the  season  advances,  the  young  canes  spread  out  over 
the  ground  and  tend  to  interfere  with  cultivation.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  direct  them  along  the  row,  like 
strawberry  runners,  however,  and  continue  the  cultiva- 
tion but  one  way,  if  the  plants  are  so  set  as  to  admit 
of  cultivation  both  ways  earlier. 

PRUNING  AND   TRAINING 

Very  little  pruning  is  required.  Simply  to  shorten 
the  canes  when  they  are  tied  up  in  spring,  if  too  long, 
is  all  that  is  necessary,  unless  there  is  a  tendency  to 
produce  too  many  canes,  when  all  but  four  or  five 
should  be  removed.  With  any  careful  system  of  culti- 
vation some  method  of  training  is  essential.  Various 
plans  have  been  recommended  from  time  to  time,  only 
part  of  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  mention  here. 

One  plan  consists  of  a  low,  flat  trellis,  of  greater  or 
less  width,  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  ground,  on 
which  the  plants  are  allowed  to  run.  This  may  be  a 
narrow  one  of  wire,  made  by  driving  stakes  into  the 
ground,  ten  or  twelve  feet  apart,  and  nailing  strips  of 
boards  a  foot  or  more  long,  across  the  top.  On  these 


142  BUSH-FRUITS 

cross -strips  wires  are  drawn  tightly,  one  at  each  end 
and  usually  two  between.  Another  way  of  reaching 
the  same  end  is  to  fasten  pieces  of  boards  to  stakes, 
running  the  boards  lengthwise  of  the  row,  one  on 
either  side,  and  nailing  slats  across  between  them. 
Such  a  low,  flat  trellis  raises  the  fruit  off  the  ground 
and  keeps  it  clean,  but  picking  is  inconvenient  and 
cultivation  is  more  difficult. 

A  second  plan  consists  in  training  to  an  upright 
wire  trellis,  after  the  manner  of  grapes.  The  young 
canes  are  allowed  to  run  on  the  ground,  and  are  tied  up 
to  the  wires  the  following  spring.  This  is  a  very  satis- 
factory method,  although  it  admits  of  cultivation  only 
one  way. 

A  most  simple  and  satisfactory  plan  is  the  one 
which  was  recommended  by  A.  J.  Cay  wood  as  early 
as  1888.*  Let  his  own  words  explain  it: 

"I  plant  them  as  I  do  red  raspberries,  four  feet  apart 
each  way,  cultivating  both  ways  until  the  fore  part  of 
June,  when  the  renewals  get  too  long  to  do  so.  We 
then  direct  the  renewals  of  each  row  along  the  bottoms 
of  the  hills,  and  cultivate  the  other  way  as  long  as 
required,  and  one  man  has  done  the  directing  of  our 
patch  in  a  day.  The  old  canes  are  taken  from  the 
stakes  any  time  after  the  fruit  is  off,  before  tying  up  in 
the  spring.  The  renewals  are  left  on  the  ground  all 
winter,  which  is  sufficient  protection  here,  but  if  it  is 
necessary  to  protect  them  in  colder  regions,  their  pros- 
trate position  facilitates  the  work. 

"In  the  spring,  one  draws  the  entire  hill  from  under 

*Popular  Gardening,  vol.  iv.,  p.  33. 


GATHERING    THE    FRUIT  143 

the  other  hills  in  the  row,  and  holds  them  to  a  stake, 
while  a  boy  ties  them  tightly.  This  can  be  done  as 
rapidly  as  tying  red  raspberries.  I  think  my  patch  was 
the  first  managed  on  this  plan.  We  have  tried  the 
windrow  system,  but  like  staking  the  plants  better." 

If  the  old  canes  are  cut  away  as  soon  as  through 
fruiting,  the  young  ones  can  then  be  tied  to  the  stake 
until  winter,  and  cultivation  go  on  unimpeded.  This 
may  favor  a  better  development  and  maturity  of  the 
canes  than  when  they  are  allowed  to  run  on  the  ground. 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

Whatever  applies  to  the  harvesting  and  marketing 
of  blackberries  will  apply  equally  well  to  dewberries, 
except  that,  coming  in  earlier,  they  have  the  market 
more  nearly  to  themselves.  The  vines  are  viciously 
thorny,  and  the  fruit  apt  to  be  so  concealed  within 
them  as  to  render  the  picking  difficult  and  painful. 
Training  the  plants  to  a  stake  or  trellis  will  in  part 
obviate  this  difficulty. 

The  fruit  carries  well,  and  can  be  put  into  market  in 
good  condition.  Like  many  of  the  blackberries,  though 
perhaps  in  a  more  marked  degree,  it  has  the  habit  of 
turning  black  before  it  is  ripe.  If  picked  then  it  is 
sour  and  undesirable,  so  that  for  home  market  it  should 
be  allowed  to  get  thoroughly  ripe  before  being  gathered. 

DURATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

Dewberries  persist  well  in  the  soil, — in  fact,  too 
well,  for  after  they  have  served  their  purpose,  and  it 


144  BUSH-FRUITS 

is  desirable  to  get  rid  of  them,  they  still  persist  with 
a  tenacity  worthy  of  a  better  purpose.  They  seem 
often  to  be  unproductive  for  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  afterward  coming  into  more  uniform  and  pro- 
lific bearing,  and  continuing  in  many  cases  for  a 
number  of  years. 

KILLING   OUT  THE   PATCH 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  rid  a  plot  of  ground 
of  them,  vigorous  measures  must  be  adopted.  \\Thile 
they  do  not  propagate  naturally  by  suckers,  yet  when 
the  roots  are  torn  and  broken,  pieces  which  are  left  in 
the  ground  have  a  remarkable  ability  for  bursting  forth 
into  plants.  The  method  advised  for  destroying  the 
blackberry  is  the  best  that  can  be  recommended  for 
killing  off  dewberries  ;  namely,  mowing  and  plowing 
directly  after  fruiting,  frequent  cultivation  afterwards, 
and  replowing  before  winter. 

HARDINESS 

The  inherent  hardiness  of  the  dewberry  may  not 
be  equal  to  that  of  many  varieties  of  the  blackberry, 
yet  its  habit  of  growth  tends  to  afford  it  protection 
which  enables  it  to  withstand  the  cold  of  winter,  in 
most  cases,  as  well  as  the  blackberries.  If  not  en- 
tirely hardy  in  some  localities,  the  ease  with  which  it 
can  be  protected  in  winter  is  certainly  a  point  in  its 
favor.  The  older  canes  will  naturally  be  cut  away 
before  winter,  and  in  any  event  the  protection  of 
them  is  of  no  benefit.  The  young  canes,  which  lie 


POSSIBLE    RETURNS  145 

directly  on  the  ground,  and  which  have  been  trained 
along  the  row  in  cultivating,  are  in  the  most  con- 
venient position  possible  for  being  covered  with  soil 
or  mulch.  In  parts  of  the  country  where  all  kinds 
must  be  protected  to  give  profitable  results,  this  is 
really  a  point  in  favor  of  the  dewberry  which  is  well 
worth  considering. 

YIELD    OF    DEWBERRIES 

The  yield  to  be  expected  is  one  of  the  moot  points 
in  dewberry  culture.  There  is  the  greatest  possible 
diversity  in  reports,  some  growers  finding  it  highly 
satisfactory  in  this  respect,  while  others  are  disgusted 
with  it.  Of  thirty -eight  growers  who  have  grown 
dewberries,  and  who  replied  to  the  question,  "Have  you 
grown  dewberries,  and,  if  so,  with  what  success?" 
twenty -three  report  good  or  fair  success  and  fifteen 
poor  success.  Much  of  this  diversity  of  opinion,  and 
much  of  the  failure  to  secure  good  results  is,  without 
doubt,  due  to  the  mixed  and  inferior  character  of  many 
of  the  plants  which  have  been  sold.  Even  where  they 
succeed,  however,  they  have  not  been  grown  very  ex- 
tensively, as  a  rule,  and  any  reliable  estimate  of  an 
average  yield  can  hardly  be  formed. 

PROBABLE    PROFITS 

With  the  question  of  yield  so  much  in  doubt,  the 
question  of  profit  must  also  be  unsettled.  It  may  be 
said,  however,  that  those  who  succeed  in  obtaining  a 
good  yield  nearly  always  find  them  profitable,  owing  to 
their  season  of  ripening  and  consequent  high  price. 


CHAPTER   VI 

MISCELLANEOUS   BRAMBLES 

While  raspberries,  blackberries  and  dewberries  of 
the  types  which  we  have  described  in  the  foregoing 
chapters  are  the  only  brambles  of  much  commercial 
importance  in  this  country,  there  are  nevertheless  a 
few  outlying  types  to  which  we  may  profitably  give 
attention. 

THE    ORIENTAL    RASPBERRIES 

At  least  four  species  of  oriental  or  Japanese  rasp- 
berries have  found  their  way  into  the  United  States, 
the  best  known  probably  being  the  one  reintroduced  a 
few  years  ago  under  the  name  of  Japanese  Wineberry. 
Unfortunately  they  have  not  proved  so  valuable  as 
many  other  Japanese  fruits,  and  have  comparatively 
little  to  recommend  them,  so  that  they  are  never  likely 
to  become  very  popular  nor  to  be  grown  to  any  great 
extent,  though  two  of  them  have  some  value  as  orna- 
mental plants. 

The  Mayberry  (Japan  Golden  Mayberry). —  This 
was  raised  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  California,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  produced  from  seeds  of  Rubus  micro- 
phyllus,  a  Japanese  species,  crossed  with  the  Cuthbert 
raspberry.  It  is  claimed  to  produce  a  bush  six  to 
eight  feet  high,  bearing  numerous  large  white  blos- 

(146) 


THE    STRAWBERRY-RASPBERRY  147 

soms,  which  are  followed  by  "large,  sweet,  glossy, 
golden,  semi-transparent  berries,"  which  ripen  in  ad- 
vance of  strawberries.  It  appears  to  have  developed 
little  value  as  yet.  Thus  far  we  have  not  succeeded 
in  making  it  live  in  Nebraska. 

The  Strawberry  -  Raspberry . — This  peculiar  fruit  be- 
longs to  a  species  found  wild  in  Japan,  China  and  the 
East  Indies,  and  known  to  botanists  as  Rubus  roscefo- 
lius.  It  has  been  commonly  referred  to  in  horticultural 
literature  under  the  name  R.  sorMfolius,  but  this  ap- 
pears to  be  only  a  synonym  of  the  older  name  rosa3fo- 
lius.  The  double  form  of  this  same  species  has  been 
long  known  as  a  greenhouse  plant,  cultivated  for  its 
flowers,  though  apparently  but  little  grown.  As  re- 
cently introduced  from  Japan  under  the  name  straw- 
berry-raspberry, it  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  a  curiosity, 
and  may  be  worth  growing  for  that  purpose  or  as  an 
ornamental  plant.  It  is  herbaceous  in  our  climate, 
dying  down  to  the  ground  each  winter  and  springing  up 
from  the  roots  in  spring.  It  throws  up  innumerable 
suckers,  making  a  perfect  mat  of  bright  colored  foliage. 
The  leaves  have  a  central  stalk  with  five  to  seven  oppo- 
site narrow  leaflets,  and  are  really  very  pretty.  The 
mat  of  plants  is  so  dense  that  it  will  keep  down  nearly 
all  weeds,  and  the  plants  continue  to  bloom  and  fruit 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  season.  The 
blossoms  are  white,  pretty  and  sweet-scented,  and  the 
berries  bright  and  showy,  a  clump  of  the  plants  making 
an  attractive  bed.  It  is  unproductive,  and  the  fruit 
in  its  fresh  state  is  rather  unpalatable,  varying  from 
sour  and  insipid  to  somewhat  bitter.  When  cooked, 


148  BUSH-FRUITS 

however,  it  is  said  to  develop  a  pleasant  flavor  midway 
between  the  strawberry  and  the  raspberry,  and  to  give 
a  brilliant,  rich  garnet  color  to  the  syrup.  The  illustra- 
tion (Fig.  28),  life  size,  is  adaped  from  "The  Rural 
New-Yorker,"  1897,  page  257. 

The  Wineberry  (Japanese  Wineberry). —  This  is  a 
raspberry  which  is  found  wild  in  the  mountains  of 
central  and  northern  Japan.  Its  botanical  name,  now 
well  known,  is  Rubus  phcenicolasius .  It  forms  a  bush 
three  to  seven  feet  high,  with  somewhat  spreading  and 
rambling  canes,  which  are  thickly  covered  with  bright 
red  hairs  and  weak  prickles,  standing  out  at  right 
angles  to  the  stem.  The  leaves  are  light  green  and 
whitish  below.  The  flowers  are  very  small,  white,  with 
large,  hairy,  viscous  sepals,  which  close  over  the  fruit 
again  after  blooming  and  keep  it  entirely  covered  until 
about  ripening  time,  when  they  again  open.  "  The 
berry  is  then  white,  but  turns  bright  red  within  two 
or  three  days,  becoming  sweet  and  agreeable  ;  said  to 
be  somewhat  intermediate  in  flavor  between  the  red 
and  the  black  raspberry.  Seeds  were  sent  from  Japan 
to  J.  T.  Lovett,  in-  the  summer  of  1887,  by  Prof.  C. 
C.  Georgeson,  now  of  Kansas.  In  1889  the  stock 
raised  from  this  seed  was  sold  to  John  Lewis  Childs, 
who  introduced  it  under  the  name  of  Japanese  Wine- 
berry.*  The  berry  is  of  good  size,  firm  and  hand- 
some, and  owing  to  its  peculiar  covering  is  exempt 
from  insect  attacks.  It  has  not  proved  to  be  of 
any  real  commercial  value  in  the  United  States, 
being  generally  tender  and  unproductive.  It  is  a 

*Amer.  Gar.  1891,  204. 


Fig.  28,    The  strawberry-raspberry. 


150  BUSH-FRUITS 

peculiar  and  attractive  plant,  and  well  worth  grow- 
ing as  an  ornamental.  It  had  been  known  in  this 
country  and  sold  under  its  true  botanical  name  by 
Ellwanger  &  Barry,  and  perhaps  by  other  nursery- 
men, long  before  its  dissemination  by  Mr.  Childs. 
It  was  described  in  "The  Gardener's  Monthly"  for 
January,  1880,  and  received  soon  after  by  the  edi- 
tor, Thomas  Meehan,  under  the  name  Rubus  Hoff- 
meisteriana. 

The  Chinese  Raspberry  (Rubus  cratcegifolius) . — 
This  raspberry  possesses  very  little  value  as  a  fruit- 
producing  plant,  but  makes  a  handsome  ornamental 
shrub,  and  is  well  worth  growing  for  that  purpose. 
Its  flowers  are  inconspicuous,  but  its  foliage  and  habit 
are  attractive,  and  its  autumn  coloring  is  often  su- 
perb. It  is  more  fully  described  among  the  orna- 
mental species  (page  152)  and  in  the  botanical  section 
(Chap.  XL). 

ORNAMENTAL    SPECIES 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  members  of  this 
family  only  as  fruit -producing  plants,  yet  many  of 
them  possess  considerable  attractiveness  as  ornamentals, 
and  are  well  worthy  a  place  in  any  grounds.  Some  of 
them  are  beautiful  in  themselves,  especially  if  grown  in 
free  and  natural  clumps,  but  more  especially  are  they 
valuable  for  grouping  with  other  trees  and  shrubs. 
Many  of  the  most  desirable  species  are  natives  of 
America,  and  possibly  because  of  this  are  better  appre- 
ciated in  Europe  than  here.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  we  are  wont  to  pass  by  beautiful  things  growing 


ORNAMENTAL    RASPBERRIES  151 

at  our  doors  for  something  less  desirable  which  comes 
from  a  tropical  or  foreign  country. 

The  ornamental  qualities  of  most  of  these  species 
have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  description 
of  each  under  the  botanical  section  (Chap.  XI.),  so 
that,  in  most  cases,  a  brief  mention  of  them  is  all 
that  need  be  made  here. 

Rubus  odomtus,  the  Purple -flowering  Raspberry, 
or  Thimbleberry,  is  so  common  throughout  the  greater 
portion  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  that 
we  scarcely  think  of  it  as  being  ornamental.  Yet  it  is 
a  very  pretty  and  attractive  shrub.  It  is  beautiful  both 
in  flower  and  fruit,  and  doubly  desirable  because  it 
continues  its  blossoming  and  fruiting  period  over  so 
long  a  time.  The  foliage  alone  is  attractive,  regardless 
of  the  blossoms.  This  species  is  frequently  mentioned 
among  ornamentals  in  European  journals. 

Rubus  parviflorus,  the  Rocky  Mountain  Thimble- 
berry,  erroneously  called  Salmon -berry,  is  closely  re- 
lated. It  is  better  known  as  R.  Nutkanus,  but  since 
the  former  name  has  been  found  to  be  the  older  it 
must  now  take  the  preference.  This  species  and  its 
varieties  are  found  in  the  region  of  the  great  lakes 
and  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Its  fruit  seems  to 
have  been  rather  more  important  in  the  wild  state  than 
that  of  R.  odoratus,  but,  in  general  the  species  is  much 
the  same,  except  that  the  flowers  are  white.  Few 
attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  to  cultivate  it. 
If  it  could  be  made  to  succeed  well,  it  would  un- 
doubtedly be  a  most  desirable  plant  to  group  with  the 
eastern  species. 


152  B  USH-FR  UITS 

By  far  the  most  desirable  and  attractive  member  of 
this  section  of  the  genus  is  undoubtedly  Rubus  deli- 
ciosus,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This,  like  the  two 
species  already  mentioned,  has  simple  leaves,  three  to 
five-lobed,  serrate,  but  more  rounded  than  in  those 
species.  The  flowers  are  large,  pure  white  and  attrac- 
tive. So  far  as  reported,  it  has  generally  proved  suc- 
cessful, though  it  does  not  flourish  under  the  hot  sun 
and  drying  winds  in  Nebraska.  It  is  unquestionably 
well  worthy  of  more  general  cultivation  than  it  has  yet 
received.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  propagate,  which 
will  naturally  render  it  more  expensive  and  harder  to 
get  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  There  are  nurserymen 
in  the  West,  however,  who  make  a  specialty  of  collect- 
ing these  mountain  plants,  growing  them  until  accus- 
tomed to  cultivation  before  offering  them  for  sale,  or 
even  propagating  them  wholly  in  the  nursery.  Plants 
from  such  sources  can  readily  be  obtained,  and  will 
generally  prove  satisfactory. 

Rubus  cratcegifolius  is  an  oriental  species  of  some 
ornamental  value  which  has  been  grown  somewhat  in 
this  country.  Its  chief  merit  lies  in  its  foliage.  The 
flowers  are  small  and  inconspicuous,  and  the  fruit  small, 
though  bright  red  when  ripe.  The  foliage  is  dense  and 
bright  green,  coloring  well  in  autumn,  and  the  bush 
is  pleasing  in  its  habit  of  growth,  so  that  it  possesses 
considerable  value  as  an  ornamental  plant,  although 
there  is  nothing  striking  about  it.  It  is  generally  hardy, 
and  will  mass  well  with  other  plants  and  shrubs.  In 
Nebraska  it  has  proved  disappointing  in  regard  to 
hardiness,  being  injured  by  the  winters  thus  far,  even 


ORNAMENTAL    SPECIES  153 

when  protected.  The  rich  autumn  color  developed  by 
the  foliage  on  the  young  shoots  thrown  up  from  the 
root  in  spring  has  offset  the  loss  of  the  older  canes, 
however. 

Rubus  arcticus,  though  a  very  pretty  little  spe- 
cies, can  hardly  be  expected  to  succeed  in  cultivation, 
for  it  is  a  native  of  the  far  north,  and  only,  extends 
southward  upon  the  high  mountain  ranges.  It  is  the 
most  delicate  and  one  of  the  prettiest  members  of  the 
family,  and  would  be  very  desirable  if  it  could  only 
be  made  to  succeed. 

Rubus  phwnicolasius ,  the  "Japanese  Wineberry," 
has  been  brought  more  prominently  before  the  public 
than  most  other  ornamental  species  (page  148).  Its 
chief  attraction  lies  in  the  peculiar  reddish  hairy  char- 
acter of  the  plant.  Except  in  favorable  localities,  this 
is  all  there  is  to  recommend  it,  for  the  canes  are  killed 
to  the  ground  every  winter,  and  there  are  consequently 
no  flowers  or  fruit.  The  oddity  of  the  fruit  is  one  of 
its  attractive  features,  whenever  any  is  produced.  It  is 
not  at  all  adapted  to  planting  in  clumps  and  masses, 
like  most  of  the  species  previously  mentioned. 

Rubus  spectabilis,  the  Salmon -berry,  is  a  showy 
member  of  the  family,  found  native  from  California 
northward  along  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  a  vigorous- 
growing  shrub,  with  leaves  made  up  of  three  sharp- 
pointed,  sharply  toothed  leaflets,  or  occasionally  deeply 
three-lobed  only.  The  flowers  are  red  or  purple,  large 
and  showy,  and  the  fruit  large  and  good,  though  prob- 
ably not  abundant  enough  to  render  it  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation on  that  account.  It  seems  to  succeed  well 


154  BUSH-FRUITS 

in  England,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  do  equally  well  in  many  parts  of  our  own 
country.  It  propagates  rapidly  from  suckers,  so  that 
means  are  sometimes  needed  to  keep  it  in  check.  It 
ought  at  least  to  be  given  a  thorough  trial,  for  it  is 
really  a  very  attractive  plant. 

Eubus  laciniatus,  the  Cut -leaved  Blackberry,  has 
been  brought  to  notice  from  time  to  time  as  a  desir- 
able ornamental,  and  heralded  as  a  wonderful  fruit- 
bearing  plant.  Its  names  have  been  numerous,  in- 
cluding Parsley -leaved,  Oregon  Evergreen,  Oregon 
Climbing  and  Sandwich  Island.  Sometimes  it  has  been 
styled  a  dewberry,  and  sometimes  a  blackberry.  It 
is  interesting  from  the  peculiar  subdivision  of  its 
leaves,  and  an  occasional  plant  will  prove  useful  in 
certain  places,  but  aside  from  this  feature  it  possesses 
no  ornamental  qualities  worthy  of  special  note.  In 
this  case  the  order  of  things  is  reversed,  for  this  is  a 
European  species,  and  Americans  have  given  it  more 
attention  than  is  given  to  it  across  the  water.  In 
some  sections  there,  however,  it  seems  to  be  prized 
for  its  fruit  production.  As  a  general  rule,  at  least, 
it  produces  little  or  nothing  in  this  country,  though 
it  is  reported  productive  in  the  North  Pacific  states. 
The  plant  is  so  desperately  thorny  that  it  would  be 
well-nigh  hazardous  to  attempt  to  pick  its  fruit,  if 
there  were  any. 

The  form  commonly  offered  for  sale  may  be  de- 
scribed as  follows:  Stems  nearly  round,  more  or  less 
trailing,  fertile  ones  erect,  prickles  small  at  the  base, 
but  recurved  and  strong  above,  very  numerous;  leaves 


ORNAMENTAL    SPECIES  155 

much  dissected  and  sharply  serrate ;  fruit  roundish, 
black,  grains  large,  sweet,  with  a  peculiar  musky 
flavor,  borne  in  loose  panicles. 

The  Double  White  and  Double  Pink  Brambles  are 
referred  to  at  some  length  in  the  botanical  section. 
(Chap.  XI.)  These  are  "also  European  species,  but 
they  have  been  long  known  in  this  country.  The 
flowers  are  said  to  resemble  miniature  roses  more  than 
they  do  those  of  the  other  members  of  the  family. 
They  are  reported  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  being 
grown  as  single  specimens,  and  it  is  only  when  thus 
planted,  giving  them  a  chance  for  full  and  symmet- 
rical development,  that  their  beauty  is  to  be  fully 
appreciated.  These  pretty  forms  have  never  become 
so  popular  and  common  as  they  deserve  to  be,  and 
apparently  they  ought  to  be  better  known. 

There  are  several  other  species,  not  so  well  known 
as  the  above,  which  may  in  time  prove  themselves 
worthy  of  being  planted  for  ornamental  purposes.  One 
of  these  is  Rubus  trifidus,  or  Fire  Raspberry,  the  name 
applying  to  the  bright  red  color  of  the  foliage  in 
autumn.  This  has  been  tried  at  the  Arnold  arboretum 
and  recommended  for  wider  planting. 

Another  very  interesting  species,  which  might  per- 
haps be  made  to  succeed  here,  is  Rubus  Henry i,  from 
China.  It  belongs  to  the  simple -leaved  section  of  the 
genus,  and  is  described  as  "a  tall,  climbing  shrub,  with 
deeply  three -lobed,  thick  leaves,  glabrous  above  and 
clothed  with  a  white  tomentum  below ;  flowers  small, 
red,  in  terminal  racemes."  It  may  be  that  this  would 
prove  more  interesting  to  botanists,  owing  to  its  dis- 


156  B  USH-FR  UITS 

tinct  character,  than  it  would  to  plant -lovers  in  general 
from  any  strictly  ornamental  qualities. 

From  the  above  list  it  will  be  seen  that  the  genus, 
though  not  considered  an  ornamental  one,  is  far  from 
being  destitute  of  ornamental  qualities.  In  addition  to 
these  more  strictly  so-called  ornamental  features,  the 
fruit -producing  members  of  the  family  possess  charms 
to  the  true  lover  of  fruits  which  are  by  no  means  to 
be  despised.  A  well  grown  row  of  red  raspberries,  with 
the  scarlet  fruit  peeping  out  from  among  the  green 
foliage,  or  a  row  of  blackberry  bushes  covered  with 
clusters  of  shining  black  berries,  is  a  sight  so  attractive 
that  it  will  be  appreciated  by  many  a  person  on  whom 
the  charms  of  a  strictly  ornamental  plant  would  fall 
unheeded,  and  is  not  beneath  the  attention  of  the 
most  fastidious. 


CHAPTER  VII 

VARIETIES   OF  RASPBERRIES 

Varieties  of  most  of  the  bush  -fruits  have  long  since 
become  so  numerous  that  to  attempt  to  describe  them  in 
such  a  manner  as  would  enable  the  grower  to  there- 
by determine  them  is  utterly  impracticable,  even  if  it 
were  possible  for  any  one  person  to  have  access  to 
all  the  varieties.  The  reader  may  well  ask,  therefore, 
Why  attempt  to  describe  them  at  all?  There  are 
several  reasons  why  a  complete  list  of  all  varieties 
which  are  or  have  been  grown  in  this  country,  in  so 
far  as  it  can  be  obtained,  with  brief  descriptive  notes 
concerning  them,  is  needed  and  likely  to  be  of  use. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  need  of 
some  means  to  prevent  duplication  of  names  and  con- 
sequent confusion,  which  must  inevitably  happen  when 
varieties  become  so  numerous  as  they  are  now  and 
will  continue  to  be. 

Then,  too,  it  is  of  interest  and  profit  to  know 
something  of  the  history  of  varieties,  how  they  have 
originated,  and  the  sources  from  which  they  have 
sprung,  in  order  that  we  may  thereby  trace  the  evolu- 
tion of  our  fruit-growing  and  the  progress  which  has 
been  made.  Furthermore,  a  brief  description,  with  a 
note  concerning  its  origin  and  parentage,  when  these 
are  known,  may  at  times  enable  the  grower  to  decide 

(157) 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


158  BUSH-FRUITS 

whether  a  certain  variety  which  may  give  excellent 
results  in  some  other  region  of  the  country,  is  likely 
to  do  the  same  under  his  conditions.  While  the 
succeeding  lists  are  as  full  as  it  has  been  possible 
to  make  them  by  a  careful  search  through  the  litera- 
ture available,  there  are  doubtless  many  omissions. 
Any  additions  or  corrections  which  others  can  make 
will  be  gladly  welcomed  by  the  author. 

The  varieties  in  this  historical   record  are  arranged 
alphabetically  under  five  heads: 
I.  Black  raspberries. 
II.  Pur  pie -cane  raspberries. 

III.  American -type  red  raspberries. 

IV.  European -type  red  raspberries, 
V.  Unclassified  varieties. 


I.     BLACK   EASPBEERIES 

Rubus  occidentalis 

Although  the  youngest  group  of  raspberries  in  cul- 
tivation, this  has  come  to  be  the  most  important  one. 
Immense  strides  have  been  made  since  Nicholas  Long- 
worth  first  transferred  the  Ohio  Everbearing  to  his  door- 
yard  in  1832.  The  species  adapts  itself  so  readily  to 
cultivation,  and  is  so  uniformly  hardy  and  productive, 
ripening  its  fruit  in  a  comparatively  short  space  of 
time,  and  withal  is  so  good  to  eat,  that  the  wonder  is 
not  so  much  that  .it  has  gained  in  popularity  so  rapidly, 
but  that  it  did  not  come  into  cultivation  sooner.  Its 
adaptability  to  being  grown  as  a  farm  crop  for  evap- 


BOTANY  OF    THE  BLACK-CAPS  159 

orating  purposes  has  also  given  a  great  stimulus  to  its 
cultivation  in  recent  years.  The  future  of  the  black 
raspberry  is  assuredly  a  promising  one. 

Very  little  need  be  said  concerning  the  botanical 
characters  of  the  black -cap,  since  the  species  to  which 
it  belongs,  Rubus  occidentalis ,  is  so  distinct  from  the 
other  cultivated  species  of  raspberries.  The  color  of 
the  fruit  and  method  of  propagation  are  alone  sufficient 
to  distinguish  it  from  all  the  others.  There  is  a  western 
wild  type,  however,  very  closely  related  to  this  one, 
which  has  long  stood  as  a  species,  though  apparently 
more  properly  ranked  as  only  a  variety  of  Rubus  oc- 
cidentalis. This  is  the  form  known  as  Rubus  leuco- 
dermis,  found  in  the  mountains  of  California  and 
adjoining  states.  It  is  distinguished  from  Rubus  occi- 
dentalis chiefly  by  the  color  of  the  fruit,  which  is  yel- 
lowish red  or  wine -colored,  by  the  coarser  toothed 
leaflets  and  the  stouter  and  more  hooked  prickles. 

The  Ohio  Everbearing  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
named  variety  of  black -cap  introduced  into  cultivation. 
It  was  found  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  introduced  to 
public  notice  by  Nicholas  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati, 
who  began  its  culture  in  1832.  Next  came  the  Amer- 
ican Black,  also  named  Joslyn's  Black -cap,  Joslyn's 
Improved,  Joslyn's  Improved  Black -cap,  American 
Improved,  etc.,  which  finally  came  to  be  known  the 
country  over  as  Doolittle.  This  was  found  growing 
wild  by  Leander  Joslyn,  of  Phelps,  Ontario  county, 
N.  Y.,  and  introduced  by  H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks 
Corners,  about  1850.  It  is  said  to  have  owed  its 
especial  prominence  and  value  to  the  method  by 


160  BUSH-FRUITS 

which  it  was  propagated,  only  the  tips  from  one- 
year-old  plants  being  used.  This  variety  did  much  to 
spread  the  cultivation  of  the  species  throughout  the 
country,  and  the  impetus  then  gained  has  steadily  in- 
creased, until  the  fruit  has  become  one  of  the  most 
important.  Until  its  immense  increase  led  to  a  still 
more  rapid  increase  and  consequent  destructiveness  on 
the  part  of  injurious  insects  and  fungi,,  it  was  one  of 
the  easiest  grown  and  most  uniformly  successful  fruits 
in  cultivation.  The  development  of  the  evaporating 
industry  has  done  much  to  add  to  its  importance, 
and  increase  the  extent  of  its  cultivation. 

Recently  the  industry  has  been  seriously  threatened 
by  the  spread  of  fungous  diseases,  notably  the  anthrac- 
nose.  Further  experience,  however,  seems  to  promise 
a  feasible  plan  for  keeping  it  in  check,  so  that  the  in- 
dustry need  not  be  crippled.. 

As  this  is  the  youngest  member  of  the  raspberry 
family,  there  is  good  reason  to  hope  for  much  improve- 
ment in  it.  There  is  a  very  marked  improvement  in 
the  best  varieties  of  the  present  day  over  the  wild  plants 
of  the  woods,  or  those  first  introduced.  This  improve- 
ment seems  to  be  going  on  rapidly,  and  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  it  should  not  continue.  We  want  not  only 
better  size  and  better  quality  than  we  now  have,  but  we 
want  equally  reliable  varieties  which  will  come  in  both 
early  and  late. 

VARIETIES   OF   BLACK   RASPBERRIES 

Ada.—  A  chance  seedling  which  originated  with  Henry  Young, 
of  Ada,  Ohio,  about  1882  or  1883.  Thought  by  him  to  be  a  cross 
between  Doolittle  and  Mammoth  Cluster.  Reported  as  vigorous, 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  161 

very  hardy,  productive,  and  comparatively  free  from  thorns. 
Fruit  large,  jet  black,  and  of  good  quality.  Said  to  bloom  later 
than  other  varieties,  thus  being  more  liable  to  escape  frosts. 
Season  as  late  as  or  later  than  Gregg. 

Ak-Sar-Ben. — A  seedling  accidentally  discovered  by  Ex-Gov. 
Robert  W.  Furnas,  of  Brownville,  Nebraska.  From  the  original 
plant  three  years  old  Gov.  Furnas  picked  113  clusters  in  1897, 
averaging  thirteen  berries  to  a  cluster.  Hardy.  Fruit  large,  of 
good  color  and  fair  quality.  Not  yet  introduced. 

Alden.—A  name  proposed  for  the  Ohio,  to  better  distinguish  it 
from  the  Ohio  Everbearing,  but  never  adopted. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bull.  Ill:  256. 

American  Black  (Common  Black-cap,  Black  Raspberry,  Thimble- 
berry,  Rubus  occidentalis] .— This  is  the  common  black  raspberry  of 
the  eastern  United  States.  It  was  described  by  Downing  as  fol- 
lows: "This  raspberry,  common  in  almost  every  field,  with  large 
rambling  purple  shoots,  and  flattened,  small,  black  berries,  is 
everywhere  known.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens,  where, 
if  kept  well  pruned,  its  berry  is  much  larger  and  finer.  Its  rich, 
acid  flavor  renders  it  perhaps  the  finest  sort  for  kitchen  use,  tarts, 
puddings,  etc.  It  ripens  a  little  earlier  than  most  of  the  European 
sorts." 

American  Everbearing. — An  everbearing  black -cap  sent  out  in 
1890,  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery  Company,  of  Rio  Vista,  Va.  It  was 
named  and  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  Hatfield,  of  Indiana.  Said  to 
be  fairly  vigorous  and  hardy,  but  inferior  to  some  others  in  pro- 
ductiveness, quality  and  firmness. 

American  White  (Yellow  Cap,  Golden  Cap,  White  Thimble- 
berry). — Similar  in  all  respects  to  the  black-cap,  but  with  yellow- 
ish fruit  and  canes.  It  is  found  wild  from  time  to  time,  and  has 
often  appeared  in  cultivation,  though  never  very  popular. 

Arctic. — A  variety  growing  at  the  New  York  State  Experiment 
Station.  Described  as  vigorous,  early,  not  very  large,  moderately 
firm,  juicy,  and  sweet. 

August  Black. — Produced  by  Thomas  Rivers,  England.  Down- 
ing speaks  of  the  fruit  as  dark  red,  which  would  indicate  that  it 
might  be  a  Purple-cane  variety,  but  Mr.  Rivers  himself,  in  the 
Gardener's  Chronicle  for  1897,  p.  516,  calls  it  black.  Apparently 
never  cultivated  to  any  extent. 

Autumn  Black.  Another  variety  produced  by  Mr.  Rivers,  and 
said  by  him  to  propagate  only  from  seed,  he  evidently  not  under- 
standing the  tip -rooting  habit  of  the  species. 

Babbit. — Originated  about  1883  as  a  chance  seedling,  near  Col- 
lege Springs,  Iowa.  Sent  to  the  United  States  Department  of 


162  BUSH-FRUITS 

Agriculture,  in  1892,  by  W.  E.  Laughlin.  Said  to  be  very  hardy, 
vigorous,  and  productive.  Fruit  medium  size,  roundish  oblate, 
drupes  small  and  rather  numerous  ;  dull  black,  without  bloom, 
moderately  firm,  juicy,  and  good. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  259. 

Babcock  Nos.  3,  5  and  9. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.— Bull.  91:  201. 

Barnes.— Mentioned  as  having  nothing  peculiar  to  recommend 
it.— 111.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1880:  78. 

Beckner. — A  chance  seedling,  which  originated  in  Tippecanoe 
county,  Indiana,  about  1855. 

Beebe  (Beebe's  Golden,  Beebe's  Golden  Prolific).— Originated 
in  New  York  about  1886,  with  James  Beebe,  of  Cassadaga.  Said 
to  be  productive,  but  not  different  from  the  common  yellow -cap. 

Belle.— Sent  to  The  Eural  New-Yorker  by  L.  C.  Carlow,  of 
Batavia,  111.  Reported  to  be  hardy,  vigorous,  and  productive  ; 
very  early.  As  large  as  Gregg,  but  lacking  in  flavor. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  260. 

Belmont. — Originated  by  John  Scobs,  of  Barnesville,  Ohio,  and 
introduced  in  1879. 

Bluffton.—A.  seedling  raised  at  Bluffton,  Mo. — Mo.  Hort.  Soc. 
Kept.,  1886:  48. 

Bonanza. — Originated  on  the  grounds  of  W.  C.  Freeman,  North 
Springfield,  Mo.,  about  1888.  Said  to  be  large,  with  a  long  season. 
—Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  260. 

Bronze  Queen. — A  variety  cultivated  and  named  by  Mr.  Holman, 
of  Missouri.  Said  to  be  a  strong  grower,  hardy,  productive.  Fruit 
sweet,  of  good  quality,  of  a  peculiar  bronze  color. — Mo.  Hort.  Soc. 
Kept.,  1886:  182. 

Burns.— A.  seedling  produced  by  A.  M.  Burns  of  Manhattan, 
Kans.  Fairly  productive;  medium  size,  and  of  good  flavor. 
Claimed  to  have  great  ability  to  withstand  drought  and  heat. 

Canada.— Mentioned  by  William  Parry,  in  1869,  as  no  longer 
popular.*  A  variety  sold  under  this  name  by  Prince  &  Mills,  of 
Flushing,  Long  Island,  in  1822,  and  also  known  as  Purple  Rose- 
flowering,  indicates  that  it  may  have  been  Eubus  odorcctus. 

Carman. — Originated  by  A.  H.  Sherwood,  Southport,  Conn.,  and 
named  in  honor  of  E.  S.  Carman,  Editor  of  The  Rural  New- 
Yorker.  Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale.  An  early  variety, 
ripening  about  with  Tyler,  rather  more  dwarf  in  habit,  but  rea- 
sonably productive.  Fruit  of  good  size,  fine  quality,  and  high 
flavor.  A  good  extra  early  variety. 


*Gar.  Month.  11:237. 


BLACK-GAP    VARIETIES  163 

Carpenter  Seedling.— A.  seedling  originated  by  Charles  Carpen- 
ter, of  Kelley's  Island,  Ohio.  It  closely  resembles  Beebe's  Golden. 
Vigorous.  Fruit  small  to  medium,  ripening  early.— Sixth  Ann. 
Bept.  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  336. 

Centennial. — Samuel  Miller  speaks  of  two  varieties  under  this 
name:  one  found  by  George  Husman,  near  Hermann,  Mo.,  about 
1860,  and  one  found  by  Mr.  Grayhill,  near  Carthage.  Both  early, 
productive,  of  good  quality,  and  firm. — Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Bept., 
1884:  296. 

Champion. — An  early  sort,  found  growing  wild  in  Clark  county, 
Ohio.  Sent  out  by  Frank  Murphy,  of  Donnelsville.— Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  263. 

Chapman. — A  chance  seedling  found  on  the  grounds  of  Mr. 
Chapman,  near  Cincinnati,  and  carried  to  Boss  county,  Ohio,  by 
F.  B.  McLean,  about  1864.  Thought  by  Matthew  Crawford,  Prof. 
W.  J.  Green  and  others,  to  be  the  same  as  Ohio. 

Chesterfield. — Discovered  in  successful  cultivation  in  1884,  on  a 
farm  in  Tidewater,  Va.  It  originated  from  a  wild  plant  found  in 
Chesterfield  county,  that  state.— The  Bural  New-Yorker,  1884:  18. 

Conrath. — Discovered  in  1886  as  a  chance  seedling  near  a 
patch  of  Gregg,  near  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  by  C.  H.  Woodruff,  who 
sold  the  stock  to  Conrath  Bros.,  for  whom  it  was  named.  Early, 
vigorous,  productive,  large,  moderately  firm,  coal  black,  ripening 
early,  with  a  long  season.  A  promising  new  variety. 

Corinth.—  Mentioned  in  Bulletin  22  of  the  Mass.  Hatch  Ex- 
periment Station,  as  fairly  hardy  and  productiye,  late,  of  medium 
quality  and  size. 

Cottier  Everbearing. — A  variety  originating  with  M.  T.  Thomp- 
son, of  Bio  Vista,  Va.  Becommended  as  especially  valuable  on 
account  of  its  autumn -fruiting  qualities. 

Crawford. — Mentioned  as  moderately  productive  and  hardy  at 
the  Mass.  Hatch  Experiment  Station. — Bull.  21:  11. 

Cream. — A  yellow- cap  mentioned  by  William  Parry  in  1870. 
Mich.  Exp.  Bull.  Ill:  265. 

Cromwell  (Butler).— Originated  by  G.  S.  Butler,  of  Cromwell, 
Conn.  Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale.  Closely  resembles 
Tyler.  A  berry  of  fair  size  and  good  color,  but  rather  acid. 

Cumberland.—  A  new  black -cap  recommended  from  Pennsyl- 
vania. Of  very  large  size.  Originated  by  David  Miller,  Camp 
Hill,  Penn.— The  Bural  New-Yorker,  1896:  624. 

Daily  Bearing. — Originated  with  Mr.  Griggs,  of  Perry  county, 
Ohio,  from  seed  of  the  Ohio  Everbearing,  and  claimed  to  be  an 
improvement  on  that  variety.  Canes  almost  without  thorns. 


164  BUSH-FRUITS 

Davis. — A  yellow-cap,  said  to  be  a  few  days  earlier  than 
Golden  Queen.  Found  on  the  banks  of  the  New  River,  North 
Carolina,  some  years  ago,  by  an  old  lady  named  Davis.  It  was 
brought  to  notice  by  L.  P.  Hodges,  of  Sands,  that  state. — Mich. 
Exp.  Bull.  Ill:  268. 

Damson  (Davison's  Thornless). — Said  to  have  originated  in 
the  garden  of  Mrs.  Mercy  Davison,  of  Gowanda,  N.  Y.  Sent  out 
by  Joseph  Clinton  some  time  prior  to  1866.  Probably  the  earliest 
variety  grown.  This,  together  with  the  sweetness  of  its  fruit 
and  its  freedom  from  thorns,  gave  it  popularity  for  the  home  gar- 
den. Not  a  vigorous  grower,  and  deficient  in  productiveness. 

Doollttle  (Joslyn,  Joslyn's  Improved,  Joslyn's  Black-cap, 
American  Improved,  etc. ).— This  was  the  first  variety  which 
really  gave  prominence  to  the  black  raspberry  as  a  commercial 
fruit.  It  was  introduced  by  H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks  Corners, 
N.  Y.  Said  to  have  been  found  wild  by  Leander  Joslyn,  of 
Phelps,  Ontario  county,  N.  Y.  Mr.  Doolittle  seems  to  have  taken 
great  interest  in  selecting  and  improving  this  fruit.  The  start- 
ing point  may  have  been  from  this  plant,  found  by  Mr.  Joslyn, 
or  it  may  have  been  from  wild  plants  in  general.  What  gave 
the  American  black -cap  especial  value  under  this  name  was, 
perhaps,  not  so  much  the  variety  itself,  as  the  improved  method 
of  propagation  adopted  by  Mr.  Doolittle,  in  which  only  the  tips 
from  one-year-old  plants  were  used.  Whether  his  stock  was  de- 
rived from  one  original  plant,  or  from  various  selected  sources, 
it  is  certain  that  the  Doolittle  raspberry  acquired  a  fixity  of 
type  which  made  it  long  the  standard  cultivated  black  raspberry. 
It  is  even  yet  not  far  behind  many  more  popular  varieties. 

Doomore. — A  seedling  found  between  two  rows  of  Doolittle, 
by  Gustus  Swabley,  of  Tiffin,  Ohio,  in  1884.  Described  by  him 
as  tall,  erect,  with  deep  blue  canes.  Fruit  without  bloom, 
about  the  size  of  the  Ohio,  ripening  somewhat  earlier;  very 
productive.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  270. 

Dorchester.—  Mentioned  in  Bulletin  27  of  the  Guelph,  Ontario, 
Exp.  Sta. 

Duncan  (Kentucky  Prolific,  Kentucky  Mammoth,  Kentucky). — 
Said  to  have  been  a  chance  seedling  found  on  the  farm  of  Jack 
Smith,  in  Jefferson  county,  Kentucky,  by  a  man  named  Duncan. 
Apparently  a  popular  variety  in  Kentucky.  Said  to  be  as  large  as 
Mammoth  Cluster;  better  in  color,  firmer,  and  a  better  shipper, 
succeeding  on  all  soils. — Country  Gentleman,  1876:  175. 

Earhart.—A  variety  of  Illinois  origin,  introduced  by  Hale 
Brothers  about  1886.  Described  as  vigorous,  hardy,  and  quite 
productive.  Glossy  black,  rather  small,  ripening  very  early. 
Produces  a  small  second  crop  in  September. 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  165 

Early  Cluster. — Mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  Michigan 
Pomological  Society  for  1875,  p.  197,  as  a  new  and  promising 
seedling. 

Early  Prolific. — Mentioned  by  Dr.  Stayman  as  "the  best  early 
black -cap  that  we  have  seen.  It  is  a  very  strong  grower,  nearly 
thornless,  very  hardy,  healthy,  enormously  productive,  and  of  the 
best  quality.  It  is  as  large  as  Souhegan,  and  has  proved  three  to 
four  days  earlier."— Missouri  Hort.  Soc.  Eept.  1883:  79. 

Ebon  Beauty. — Found  by  F.  L.  Piers  in  a  piece  of  woodland  in 
Indiana,  in  1887.  Reported  inferior  to  Gregg  in  every  respect, 
except  hardiness,  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  272. 

Ebony  (Farnsworth). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling,  about 
1885,  on  the  farm  of  W.  W.  Farnsworth,  of  Waterville,  Ohio. 
Said  to  be  vigorous  and  productive.  Medium  to  large,  firm,  seedy, 
of  good  quality. 

Elsie. — A  seedling  raised  by  Samuel  Miller,  of  Bluffton,  Mo., 
who  described  it  as  very  large  and  excellent.  Said  to  be  nearly 
identical  with  Surprise. 

Emperor.—  Mentioned  in  the  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill,  p.  273. 

Eureka.— Said  to  have  been  discovered  wild  on  the  farm  of 
Jacob  Smith,  in  Miami  county,  Ohio,  by  J.  C.  Kester,  of  New 
Carlisle.  Brought  to  notice  by  W.  N.  Scarff,  of  the  same  place. 
Said  to  be  equal  to  Gregg  in  size.  Nearly  as  early  as  Palmer. 

Everlasting.—  Described  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1882, 
p.  669,  as  an  autumn -fruiting  variety,  from  Lawrence  Co.,  Pa. 

Every  Day  .—Commonly  thought  to  be  identical  with  the  Ohio 
Everbearing,  but  considered  by  Dr.  Warder  to  be  a  much  more 
continuous  bearer,  fruiting  almost  continuously  until  frost. 

Fadely. —Received  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station 
from  Joshua  Fadely,  of  Sassafras,  Va.  Claimed  to  be  everbear- 
ing. A  single  year's  test  showed  no  great  tendency  in  that  direc- 
tion.—Pa.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  32:  11. 

Fay  (Fay's  Thornless). — A  variety  similar  to  Davison,  bearing 
few  thorns.  Fruit  of  good  size,  firm,  black,  with  little  bloom. 

Ferndale.—A  chance  seedling  found  by  W.  B.  K.  Johnson, 
Allentown,  Pa.,  along  the  Delaware  River.  Described  as  vigorous, 
with  large  but  not  numerous  thorns.  Productive.  Fruit  large, 
black,  with  heavy  bloom.  Drupes  large;  berry  rather  close,  but 
firm,  moderately  juicy,  of  good  quality  and  a  good  shipper,  ripen- 
ing a  little  earlier  than  Gregg. 

Florence. — A  yellow  variety,  originating  in  New  Jersey.  Intro- 
duced about  1881.  Said  to  be  hardy  and  vigorous,  with  greenish 


166  BUSH-FRUITS  ± 

or  yellowish  white  canes  and  strong  white  spines.  Of  medium 
size,  orange  yellow,  moderately  firm,  juicy  and  sprightly. 
Thought  at  the  time  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  yellow  varieties. 

Gault.—  Found  by  W.  C.  Gault,  of  Ruggles,  Ashland  county, 
Ohio,  growing  by  the  roadside  near  his  place,  in  1887,  and  intro- 
duced by  him  in  1893.  Described  as  medium  to  large,  dull  black, 
with  a  slight  bloom,  moderately  juicy,  and  a  good  shipper.  Sea- 
son very  late.  Tends  to  produce  a  second  crop  in  autumn. 

General  Negley. — Mentioned  by  Mr.  Arnold,  before  the  Ontario 
Fruit  Growers'  Society,  as  a  perpetual  bearing  black-cap.'55'  Un- 
der this  name  Crozier  quotesf  from  Dr.  J.  A.  Warder  as  follows: 
"A  seedling,  probably  from  one  of  the  large  foreign  varieties, 
Pilot,  Hornet  or  Franconia,  originated  by  General  Negley,  of 
Pittsburg.  It  is  vigorous,  of  foreign  aspect  and  foliage.  Stood 
the  past  winter  well;  is  productive,  rather  early.  Fruit  large, 
roundish  oblong,  juicy,  high  flavor,  and  very  good." 

Golden-cap. —  A  seedling  of  the  American  White -cap,  originat- 
ing in  Cedar  county,  Iowa  ;  seems  to  have  received  some  special 
notice  under  this  name. 

Golden  Thornless.—  Introduced  from  Minnesota,  by  Purdy  & 
Johnston,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  previous  to  1869.  Described  as 
moderately  vigorous  and  productive,  with  few  spines.  Fruit  large, 
dull  orange  color,  rather  darker  than  American  White.  Moderately 
firm,  juicy,  sweet,  pleasant.  ' 

Gray.—  Mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  Worcester  Horticultural 
Society  for  1881,  p.  24. 

Green. — Discovered  on  the  grounds  of  Green's  Nursery  Com- 
pany, of  Eochester,  N.  Y.,  about  1890,  and  described  by  them  as 
large,  productive  and  early. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  278. 

Gregg  (Great  Western,  Hoosier  Mammoth,  Western  Tri- 
umph).—Found  growing  wild  in  a  ravine  on  the  Gregg  farm,  in 
Ohio  county,  Indiana,  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  1866.  It  was 
most  thoroughly  tested  and  widely  exhibited  before  being  intro- 
duced, and  has  borne  out  in  a  remarkable  way  the  early  promises 
it  gave.  It  was  largely  introduced  by  N.  Ohmer,  of  Dayton,  Ohio, 
who  first  saw  the  fruit  on  exhibition  in  1875.  He  bought  two  hun- 
dred plants  the  following  spring,  propagated  them  for  three  years, 
then  introduced  it  to  the  public.  Canes  large,  upright,  very  vig- 
orous, possessing  an  abundance  of  bloom  and  a  peculiar  clean, 
smooth  appearance  which  always  makes  them  noticeable.  More 
difficult  to  propagate  than  many  other  sorts,  owing  to  its  upright, 

*Gar.  Month.  12:  278. 

fMieh.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  277- 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  167 

vigorous  habit.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oblate,  with  a  very  decided 
gray  bloom.  Flesh  very  firm,  only  moderately  juicy  and  sweet. 
Season  late.  This  is  by  far  the  best  known  and  most  popular  late 
variety  at  the  present  time.  It  is  uniformly  healthy  and  produc- 
tive, though  slightly  lacking  in  hardiness,  especially  on  heavy 
soils.  The  plant  is  slower  to  attain  its  full  productiveness  than 
most  other  varieties,  but  is  also  slower  to  decline,  so  a  plantation 
will  remain  longer  in  profitable  condition.  Though  not  of  the 
highest  quality,  it  is  still  a  good  berry,  and  its  excellent  shipping 
qualities  render  it  especially  adapted  to  market.  It  is  also  an 
excellent  variety  for  evaporating,  especially  where  fruit  is  picked 
by  hand.  It  clings  so  tightly  to  the  receptacle  that  it  is  not  easily 
gathered  with  the  berry  harvester. 

Hale  Early.— Sent  out  for  trial  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale,  of  South 
Glastonbury,  Conn.,  but  not  proving  valuable,  was  never  intro- 
duced. 

Hamilton. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  from  Shelby  Co.,  Tenn. 

Hannibal  (Extra  Late)  .—Described  in  the  Report  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1892  as  a  large,  fine  berry 
of  excellent  quality.  Apparently  vigorous  and  productive,  being 
several  days  later  than  Gregg.  Originated  with  W.  J.  Bradt,  of 
North  Hannibal,  N.  Y. 

Harrison.—  Named  in  honor  of  President  Harrison  by  Henry  S. 
Harris,  of  White  Lane,  Salem  county,  N.  J.,  who  found  it  in  a 
neighbor's  garden  many  years  ago.  Described  as  medium  to 
large,  rather  dry,  firm,  black,  with  less  bloom  than  Gregg  ;  good, 
promising  for  market.  A  variety  which  apparently  has  never  been 
in  the  nursery  trade  to  any  extent. 

Haskell  Yellow. — Taken  from  Massachusetts  to  Illinois  by  Dr. 
Haskell,  about  1836.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  281. 

Hawkey e.—  A  berry  found  in  Iowa,  which  is  thought  to  have 
come  originally  from  Indiana.  Said  to  be  better  than  Doolittle,  as 
firm  as  Gregg,  and  as  large,  but  earlier.— Iowa  Hort.  Soc.  Eept. 
1884:  535. 

Hayne  Seedling.— A  new  variety  brought  to  notice  by  H. 
Hayne,  of  Delphi,  Indiana. 

Hilborn. — An  accidental  seedling  found  in  an  old  raspberry 
plantation,  and  introduced  by  W.  W.  Hilborn,  of  Leamington, 
Ont.,  in  1886.  Described  as  a  sturdy  grower,  very  hardy,  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  nearly  as  large  as  Gregg,  clear,  glossy  black,  rich 
and  juicy.  A  favorite  variety  in  many  parts  of  Ohio  and  Ontario. 

Hixon  (Hixon's  Everbearer)  .—Mentioned  in  the  Eeport  of  the 
Kansas  Horticultural  Society  for  1886,  p.  290,  and  appears  to  have 
attained  some  prominence  in  that  state. 


168  B  USH-FR  UITS 

Hoag  (Harkness). — According  to  A.  W.  Sias,  formerly  of 
Minnesota,  this  originated  with  Charles  E.  Hoag,  at  Kasson, 
Dodge  county,  Minnesota.  Later  it  was  disseminated  by  J.  W. 
Harkness.  Wyman  Elliot,  one  of  the  earliest  presidents  of  the 
Minnesota  Horticultural  Society,  says  that  at  one  time  it  was 
named  Harkness  by  their  society,  but  the  name  of  the  originator 
was  preferred.  Said  to  resemble  Gregg,  but  to  have  been  more 
hardy  in  Minnesota. 

Hopkins. — Found  wild  in  the  woods,  within  the  present  limits 
of  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  in  the  year  1872.  Later  brought  to  notice  by 
G.  W.  Hopkins,  of  Springfield,  Mo.,  and  introduced  by  Frank 
Hoi  singer,  of  Rosedale,  Kans.  Described  as  similar  to  Tyler,  and 
ripening  with  it.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  round,  black,  with  little 
bloom  ;  texture  soft,  flavor  mild.  A  good  shipper.  Considered  a 
valuable  variety  in  the  region  where  it  originated. 

Idaho. — Mentioned  by  Crozier,*  as  possibly  a  variety  of  Bubus 
leucodermis,  though  he  says  nothing  regarding  its  color.  Said  to 
have  come  from  the  mountains  near  Lewiston,  Idaho.  It  was  sent 
out  for  trial  by  F.  R.  Palmer,  of  Mansfield,  Ohio,  but  did  not 
prove  valuable. 

Ideal. — A  seedling  found  near  the  Gregg  plantation,  in  1890,  by 
C.  P.  Augur,  of  Connecticut,  who  described  it  as  nearly  as  good  as 
the  Sougehan,  and  larger  and  better  in  every  way  than  the  Gregg. — 
The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1893:  430. 

Indiana. — A  black-cap  from  Indiana,  introduced  in  1884.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive.  Fruit  of  good  size  and 
quality,  very  firm. 

Ironclad  (Smith's  Ironclad). — A  note  taken  without  mention- 
ing the  reference  says  that  this  originated  with  Mr.  Wilson,  of 
Forest,  Ohio,  about  1885.  Said  to  be  very  vigorous,  productive, 
and  healthy.  Earlier  than  Tyler,  of  good  quality.  Under  the 
name  "Smith's  Ironclad,"  Crozier  records  a  variety,!  brought  to 
notice  in  Kansas  by  a  man  named  Smith,  some  years  ago,  he  hav- 
ing found  a  single  raspberry  plant  among  a  bill  of  trees  ordered 
from  an  agent.  This  was  probably  some  old  variety,  but  still 
seems  to  be  known  in  Kansas  under  the  names  mentioned. 

Kagy  Everbearing.—  Mentioned  in  the  Ohio  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Report  for  1886,  p.  190,  as  apparently  of  no  value. 

Kansas. — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  on  the  farm  of  A. 
H.  Griesa,  Lawrence,  Kans.,  in  1884.  Although  he  had  grow- 
ing, at  the  same  time,  several  hundred  other  seedlings  from 
selected  stock,  this  proved  more  valuable  than  any  of  the  others. 


*Mich,  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  Ill:  284. 
tMich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  Ill:  309. 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  169 

Described  as  a  vigorous  grower,  very  hardy,  and  exceedingly 
thorny,  rooting  at  the  tips  with  unusual  ease.  Fruit  similar  to 
Gregg,  fully  as  large,  ripening  a  week  earlier,  with  less  bloom; 
juicy,  of  excellent  flavor,  and  firm  enough  to  ship  well.  One  of 
the  promising  newer  varieties. 

Kellogg.— A.  chance  seedling,  originally  found  by  George  J. 
Kellogg,  of  Wisconsin,  about  1875.  Claimed  to  be  hardy,  vigor- 
ous and  productive.  Similar  to  Doolittle. 

Kerr  White.— Reported  as  on  trial  in  Michigan,  where  it 
proved  to  be  large,  of  moderate  vigor  and  productiveness,  with 
light  yellow,  pubescent  fruit. 

Key  Prolific  (Johnston's  Sweet). — A  black-cap  found  in  the 
Ozark  Mountains,  Ark.  Grown  in  Iowa  since  about  1881.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous,  very  hardy,  productive  ;  not  nearly  as  large 
as  Gregg  ;  jet  black,  without  bloom,  medium  to  late  ;  of  good 
flavor,  very  sweet,  and  excellent  for  drying.  Eeintroduced  by 
Eobert  Johnston,  of  Shortsville,  N.  Y.,  in  1886,  as  Johnston's 
Sweet.— la.  Hort.  Soc.  1887:  98. 

Kimball.—  Reported  from  Rhode  Island  in  1885  by  Joseph  H. 
Bourne,  of  Providence,  as  a  promising  new  variety,  earlier  than 
Souhegan.  Found  by  him  growing  wild  on  the  farm  of  James 
Kimball,  near  Providence.  Never  introduced. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill:  287. 

Lindsey.—A  variety  said  to  have  originated  in  Michigan. 
Fruit  of  medium  size,  between  Doolittle  and  Gregg,  and  said  to 
be  better  and  firmer.— la.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1882:  478. 

Little  (Little's  Black-Cap).  Originated  with  John  Little,  of 
Ontario.  Sent  to  T.  T.  Lyon,  of  Michigan,  in  1881.  Described 
as  hardy,  moderately  vigorous,  with  rather  slender,  reddish  brown 
canes,  almost  without  spines,  which  are  purplish  white.  Fruit 
small,  roundish,  glossy  black,  firm,  seedy,  juicy,  acid,  rich. 
Much  like  Davison's  Thornless.—  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1882:169. 

Lotto,  (Brackett's  No.  101).  Originated  on  the  farm  of  G. 
C.  Brackett,  of  Lawrence,  Kans.  A  vigorous,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive variety.  Fruit  large,  round,  black,  with  slight  bloom; 
quality  good;  as  large  as  Gregg  and  somewhat  earlier.  This  is 
one  of  the  really  promising  varieties  of  recent  introduction.  As 
on  trial  at  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,  it  appeared 
to  lead  all  others  in  productiveness. 

Lovett.—  Found  among  a  lot  of  wild  seedlings  on  the  grounds 
of  Ezra  Wood,  of  Ohio.  Introduced  by  J.  T.  Lovett  Co.,  of 
New  Jersey.  Said  to  be  vigorous,  productive,  and  to  ripen  early. 
Fruit  firm,  of  good  size,  black,  with  only  slight  bloom;  apparently 
thornless.  Resembles  Tyler  in  general  characteristics. 


1 70  B  USH-FR  UITS 

Lum  Everbearing  (Autumn  Black  Raspberry,  Lum's  Fall 
Bearing).— Eaised  by  H.  B.  Lum,  of  Sandusky,  Ohio.  Much 
like  the  Ohio  Everbearing,  of  which  it  is  a  seedling. 

Lum  Yellow  Canada. — An  everbearing  variety,  mentioned  in 
Michigan  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  111:  289. 

Macomber.— This  name,  with  numbers  or  letters  appended, 
has  been  applied  to  various  seedlings  sent  out  on  trial  by  J.  T. 
Macomber  and  L.  M.  Macomber,  of  Vermont,  though  apparently 
not  retained  as  a  permanent  name  of  any  variety. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  289. 

Manwaring  No.  1. — Sent  out  by  C.  H.  Manwaring,  of  Kansas. 
Found  by  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experimental  Station  to  be  small  to 
medium,  black,  firm,  mildly  subacid,  of  good  quality,  hardy. 

May  King. — A  variety  similar  to  and  ripening  about  with  Sou- 
hegan,  although  recommended  especially  for  its  earliness. 

McCracken. — Originated  by  William  McCracken,  of  Sunnydale, 
Kans.,  and  distributed  under  the  name  Kansas,  though  not  the 
same  as  the  better -known  variety  of  that  name. 

McCormick  (Mammoth  Cluster,  Miami  Black- cap,  Collins - 
ville  Miami,  etc.). — For  many  years  the  leading  black-cap  in 
cultivation.  It  appears  to  have  originated  in  Indiana,  from  the 
Old  or  Small  Miami.  A  thoroughly  hardy  and  very  productive 
variety ;  a  vigorous  grower,  bearing  fruit  of  medium  size,  but  of 
a  slightly  reddish  black  color.  Quality  good;  season  medium. 

Miami  (Miami  Black,  Old  Miami,  Small  Miami).— A  common 
black- cap,  originally  found  growing  along  the  Miami  River,  in 
Ohio.  A  vigorous,  productive  variety;  of  less  value  than  the 
McCormick,  more  brownish  red,  not  quite  as  sweet  nor  quite  as 
late  in  ripening. — Downing. 

Miller  Daily  (Miller's  Daily  Bearing). — Apparently  a  local 
variety  near  Dunreith,  Ind.  A  large,  everbearing  black-cap; 
vigorous,  hardy,  productive.  Fruit  large,  juicy,  excellent. 

Mills  (Mills  No.  15).— Introduced  by  Charles  Mills,  of  Fair- 
mount,  N.  Y.  Raised  from  seed  of  the  Gregg  said  to  have  been 
fertilized  by  Tyler.  A  strong,  healthy,  upright  grower,  moder- 
ately productive.  Fruit  of  medium  size  and  excellent  flavor. 

Mills  No.  1. — Of  the  same  parentage  as  the  preceding.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous,  fairly  hardy.  Fruit  large,  firm,  seedy, 
moderately  juicy,  good  quality. 

Minnesota  (Minnesotian). — A  western  yellow-cap,  mentioned 
in  various  places. 

Mohler. — Originated  by  D.  H.  Mohler,  New  Paris,  Ohio,  from 
the  seed  of  the  Eureka.  Canes  large,  vigorous,  very  productive. 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  171 

Fruit  very  large,  firm,  good,  black,  early.  The  name  "Mohler" 
seems  to  have  been  applied  to  the  Eureka  at  one  time,  before 
the  introduction  of  this  variety,  which  occasioned  no  little  con- 
fusion. Discussed  in  Bulletin  63  of  the  Ohio  Exp.  Station. 

Moody.— A.  white  variety  mentioned  by  Samuel  Miller,  in  the 
Missouri  Horticultural  Society  Report  for  1884,  p.  295,  as  very 
productive,  of  good  flavor,  good  size,  and  worth  having. 

Moore  Seedling. — Mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  Ohio  Hor- 
ticultural Society  for  1870,  p.  62. 

Munger. — Originated  with  Timothy  Munger  in  western  Ohio, 
about  1890.  Introduced  by  W.  N.  Scarff,  of  New  Carlisle,  Ohio. 
Described  as  a  good  shipper,  black,  of  good  flavor,  large  size  and 
very  productive. 

Mystery. — A  variety  sent  out  from  Kentucky  as  an  everbearing 
sort.  Reported  as  of  little  value,  bearing  no  autumn  crop  in 
Minnesota.— Bull.  25. 

Nemaha. — Found  growing  wild  by  Ex-Gov.  Furnas,  of  Brown- 
ville,  Neb.,  along  the  bluffs  of  the  Missouri  River  in  Nemaha 
county,  of  that  state.  Transferred  by  him  to  his  garden,  and 
later  sent  out  to  be  tested  by  prominent  small -fruit  growers. 
Introduced  by  Green's  Nursery  Company,  about  1883.  Very 
similar  to  the  Gregg,  but  claimed  to  be  hardier.  Vigorous  and 
productive.  Fruit  large,  of  good  quality,  and  firm.  T.  T.  Lyon 
says  that  it  has  most  of  the  qualities  of  the  Gregg,  with  im- 
proved flavor  and  hardiness.  Popular  in  southeastern  Nebraska. 

New  Haven. — A  chance  seedling  which  came  up  on  the  grounds 
of  E.  E.  Clark,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  proving  better  than  any 
seedlings  he  had  raised.  Described  by  him  as  large  and  vigorous. 
Fruit  juicy,  five -eighths  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
with  small  seeds. — Report  of  the  Connecticut  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture 1866:  184. 

Norfolk. — Mentioned  as  unsatisfactory  in  Michigan. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  122. 

Northfield.— Sent  out  for  trial  by  M.  T.  Thompson,  of  Rio 
Vista,  Va.,  but  found  to  be  of  little  value  and  never  introduced. 
—Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  294. 

Ohio  (Alden).— The  great  evaporating  raspberry  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  being  far  more  largely  planted  for  that  purpose  than  all 
others  'together.  The  full  history  of  this  variety  is  recorded  by 
Bailey  in  Bulletin  117  Cornell  University  Exp.  Station,  p.  362. 
Somewhere  in  the  sixties,  Hiram  Van  Dusen,  of  Palmyra, 
N.  Y.,  bought  a  lot  of  Doolittle  plants  of  A.  M.  Purdy,  of  that 
place.  When  the  plantation  began  to  fail,  he  found  one  plant 
apparently  as  good  as  new,  which,  from  previous  observation,  he 


172  B  USH-FR  UITS 

knew  to  be  firmer,  more  productive,  and  to  ripen  later.  This 
plant  became  the  progenitor  of  the  vast  multitudes  which  now 
people  the  raspberry  fields  of  western  New  York  and  other  states. 
The  Doolittle  plant  mentioned,  it  was  found,  came  from  Ohio, 
and  Mr.  Van  Dusen  called  it  the  "Ohio"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Doolittle.  It  was  introduced  by  a  son  and  grandson  of  Mr.  Van 
Dusen.  A.  M.  Purdy  was  of  the  opinion  that  this  was  precisely 
identical  with  what  he  grew  at  that  time  as  the  Miami,  obtained 
from  Ohio,  and  states  that  it  was  so  decided  by  John  J.  Thomas 
and  Patrick  Barry,  who  saw  them  growing  on  his  grounds.  This, 
like  many  market  fruits,  though  hardy  and  productive,  is  not 
of  good  quality.  It  is  one  of  the  most  seedy  varieties  grown, 
and  it  is  partially  for  this  reason,  no  doubt,  that  it  yields  more 
pounds  of  evaporated  fruit  per  bushel  than  other  sorts. 

Ohio  Everbearing  (Monthly  Black-cap). — A  full  account  of  the 
history  of  this  variety  is  also  given  by  Bailey  in  Bulletin  117 
of  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station.  (See  also  page 
159.)  The  taking  up  of  this  variety  by  Nicholas  Longworth 
appears  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  the  cultivation  of  the 
black  raspberry  in  America.  It  is  of  especial  interest  on  this 
account,  although  it  has  never  proved  a  variety  of  great  value. 
Its  chief  distinguishing  feature  seems  to  have  been  its  autumn 
bearing  habit. 

Older. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Older, 
of  Independence,  la.,  in  1872.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Mr. 
Older,  after  his  death,  by  Mr.  Burser,  of  Warren,  111.,  and  intro- 
duced by  L.  K.  Ballard,  of  the  same  place.  Hardy,  strong,  vig- 
orous, enduring  drought  well.  Fruit  large,  nearly  destitute  of 
bloom,  black  and  firm,  of  good  quality.  Popular  in  the  West. 

Onondaga  (Mills  No.  7).— A  seedling  raised  in  1884  by  Charles 
Mills,  of  Fairmount,  N.  Y.,  from  seed  of  the  Gregg  growing  near 
Tyler.  Vigorous,  productive,  very  large,  firm,  jet  black,  ripening 
with  Gregg  or  a  little  earlier.  Professor  Beach,  of  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  says  that  as  far  as  tested  there,  it 
appears  to  be  a  desirable  acquisition  on  account  of  its  large 
size,  fine  appearance,  good  quality,  and  productiveness. 

Ontario. — Found  on  the  grounds  of  E.  E.  Lord,  of  Fairport, 
N.  Y.,  in  1886,  and  introduced  by  him  in  1872.  Claimed  to  be 
vigorous,  perfectly  hardy,  and  very  productive,  ripening  a  week 
earlier  than  Doolittle.  Fruit  large,  firm,  sweet  and  rich. 

Oregon.— Said  to  be  a  native  variety  of  especial  value  in  the 
state  for  which  it  is  named.  Not  as  dry  as  other  black-caps,  and 
larger  than  Gregg.  Referred  to  Eubus  leucodermis. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  297. 

Ozark.—A  seedling  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  Holman,  of  Mis- 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  173 

souri.  Said  to  be  a  strong  grower,  and  somewhat  like  Gregg, 
almost  as  large,  ripening  after  Hopkins.— Mo.  Hort.  Soe.  Bept. 
1886:  182. 

Palmer  (Palmer's  No.  1,  Acme).— Originated  by  F.  R.  Palmer, 
of  Mansfield,  Ohio.  Introduced  in  the  fall  of  1888.  Similar  to 
Tyler,  and  ripening  with  it.  Claimed  to  be  unusually  hardy, 
early,  large,  of  good  quality  and  wonderfully  productive.  It  has 
been  favorably  reported  upon  from  many  sections,  and  is  now 
quite  largely  grown,  especially  in  the  West. 

Pioneer  (Progress).— Originated  on  the  farm  of  Jacob  Muhl,  of 
Hammonton,  N.  J.  Apparently  grown  by  him  for  some  time  be- 
fore being  introduced  by  the  J.  T.  Lovett  Co.,  who  offered  it 
under  the  name  "Progress."  Much  like  Souhegan,  but  claimed  to 
be  later,  more  vigorous  and  productive. 

Poscharsky  Nos.  3,  9,  15.— On  test  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp. 
Station.— Bull.  91:  202. 

Pride  of  the  Market. — The  name  appeared  in  L.  L.  May  &  Go's, 
catalogue. 

Pride  of  the  West.— Said  to  be  fairly  productive  and  vigorous, 
large,  grayish  black,  of  fair  quality,  ripening  with  Gregg. 

Queen  of  the  West. — A  Kansas  seedling,  ripening  a  few  days 
earlier  than  Souhegan,  but  larger  and  more  productive. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  302. 

Ransom  Everbearing.— Sent  out  by  Stark  Bros.,  of  Louisiana, 
Mo.,  in  1890.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  303. 

Rex.— A.  seedling  of  the  Gregg  raised  by  John  W.  Perry,  of 
Covington,  Ohio,  in  1884  or  1885.  Grown  largely  by  his  son,  with 
whom  it  proves  valuable,  but  has  not  developed  sufficient  qualities 
at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  to  warrant  its  introduction. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull  111 :  305. 

Reyes.—  "The  sweetest  black-cap  I  have  ever  tasted." — P.  C. 
Reynolds,  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1886:  63. 

Rocky  Mountain  Cluster. — Mentioned  in  the  Missouri  Horticul- 
tural Society  Report  for  1897,  p.  27. 

Rundell. — A  yellow-cap  closely  resembling  Beebe's  Golden. 
Found  by  Charles  Rundell,  of  New  Buffalo,  Mich. — Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  11:  306. 

Saunders  No.  60. — A  seedling  of  Gregg,  produced  by  Professor 
William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Fruit  very  large,  purplish 
black,  ripening  late,  but  of  rather  inferior  quality.  Canes  pro- 
ductive, fairly  hardy. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  307. 

Savanna.— A  variety  obtained  from  the  woods  in  Indian  Terri- 
tory, near  Savanna,  and  so  named  by  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Denison, 


1 74  B  USH-FR  (JITS 

Texas,  who  claimed  it  to  be  as  large  as  Tyler,  a  week  earlier,  very 
prolific,  and  the  sweetest  black-cap  known  by  him.  Said  to  en- 
dure extremes  of  climate  well. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill :  307. 

Seneca.— liaised  by  Mr.  Dell,  of  Seneca  county,  N.  Y.,  and 
brought  to  notice  by  Doolittle  &  Wright,  of  Waterloo,  N.  Y.,  in 
1867.  A  large  late  variety,  very  vigorous  and  productive.  Spines 
reddish,  strong,  and  numerous.  Fruit  large,  but  not  a  deep  black, 
and  somewhat  reddish,  with  a  light  bloom. 

Sinton  Thornless. — Recorded  by  Fuller,  in  1867,  as  similar  to 
Doolittle,  but  a  week  earlier.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  309. 

Smith  Giant.—  Apparently  a  seedling  of  the  Gregg,  produced  by 
A.  M.  Smith,  of  St.  Catharines,  Ont.,  who  reported  it  hardier  than 
Gregg,  and  fully  equal  in  quality  and  productiveness.— Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill :  309. 

Smith  No.  2.— Sent  to  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station, 
by  B.  F.  Smith,  of  Lawrence,  Kans.,  who  found  it  growing  under 
an  apple  tree.  Reported  medium  size,  firm,  juicy,  sweet,  good. 

Smith  Prolific.— A  chance  seedling  found  in  a  strawberry 
patch  on  the  grounds  of  N.  G.  Smith,  of  Manchester,  N.  Y.  De- 
scribed as  unusually  vigorous,  very  productive  ;  fruit  very  firm, 
extra  large,  bright  black,  borne  in  large  clusters,  sweet.  It  ap- 
pears not  to  have  maintained  its  earlier  promises. 

SouJiegan  (Skowhegan)  .—Originated  in  the  valley  of  the  Souhe- 
gan  River,  New  Hampshire,  about  1870,  from  the  seed  of  the  Doo- 
little, by  J.  A.  Carlton.  Introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale  in  1881. 
One  of  the  standard  early  varieties,  widely  known  and  generally 
prized.  Canes  hardy,  vigorous,  and  productive.  Berries  medium 
to  large,  jet  black,  without  bloom,  of  good  quality. 

Spanish  Black. — Grown  and  sold  by  Henry  Geisler,  of  Water- 
vliet,  Mich.,  who  reports  it  popular  in  his  vicinity.  It  is  reported 
to  be  the  Gregg  re-named.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  311. 

Spray  Early. — A  chance  seedling  brought  into  cultivation  at 
Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.,  about  1884.  Described  as  vigorous,  with 
fruit  of  medium  size,  good  color,  firm,  of  good  flavor  and  quality. 

Springfield. — A  chance  seedling,  found  about  1880  on  the 
grounds  of  J.  W.  Adams,  of  Springfield,  Mass.  Described  as  a 
thornless  variety,  very  early,  prolific,  of  good  quality  and  perfectly 
hardy.  Somewhat  resembles  Davison. 

Success  (Waters'  Success). — Sent  out  for  trial  in  1893,  by 
James  N.  Waters,  Fernhill,  Ont.  Very  promising  on  the  grounds 
of  The  Rural  New-Yorker.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  318. 

Summit.— A  yellow  variety  from  Summit  township,  Crawford 
county,  Pa.  It  was  thought  to  have  originated  from  seed  found 
in  soil  excavated  at  a  depth  of  ten  feet.  The  original  plant  was 


BLACK-CAP    VARIETIES  175 

found  and  transplanted  by  Daniel  Supher,  but  was  brought  to 
notice  by  A.  T.  Hobbs,  of  Randolph,  Pa.  Canes  strong,  vigorous, 
pale  orange -yellow;  spines  short,  slightly  hooked,  rather  nu- 
merous. Fruit  of  medium  size,  orange  color,  with  pink  at  the 
base  of  most  of  the  grains.  Firm,  rather  dry,  but  sweet  and  rich. 

Surprise.— Found  wild,  and  introduced  to  notice  by  Charles 
Husmann,  of  Bluff  ton,  Mo.,  about  1865.  Said  to  be  large,  more 
conical  and  darker  in  color  than  the  common  black-cap,  with 
fewer  seeds,  and  a  deep  bloom. — Downing. 

Surrey.—  Introduced  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery  Co.  of  Bio  Vista, 
Va.  Seemed  to  promise  well  in  Virginia,  but  not  in  Michigan.— 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  313. 

Sweet  Home.— A  seedling  of  Lum's  Everbearing,  from  Illinois. 
Introduced  about  1880.  Spoken  of  as  superior  to  McCormick,  be- 
ing very  stocky,  with  a  large  and  firmer  fruit,  though  so  similar  to 
that  variety  as  to  be  thought  by  some  to  be  the  same. 

Thomas  (Thomas'  Seedling). — Originated  by  Mr.  Thomas,  of 
Marion,  Ind. 

Thompson  Sweet.—  Mentioned  in  Bulletins  of  the  Mass.  Hatch 
Experiment  Station,  as  early,  unproductive,  lacking  in  hardiness, 
vigor  and  firmness ;  small,  of  good  quality. 

Townsend  No.  2.—  On  test  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station.  Said  to  be  medium  to  large,  firm,  somewhat  seedy, 
sweet,  of  good  quality,  hardy. 

Tyler. — An  accidental  seedling,  found  growing  among  McCor- 
mick and  Seneca  plants  on  the  grounds  of  Nathan  Tyler,  of 
Auburn,  N.  Y.  Five  hundred  plants  were  sold  to  Robert  John- 
ston, of  Shortsville,  N.  Y.,  who  introduced  it  under  the  name 
Tyler.  An  excellent  early  variety,  of  good  size  and  quality,  jet 
black,  hardy  and  productive.  It  resembles  Souhegan  so  closely 
that  the  two  are  practically  indistinguishable,  although  they 
originated  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  has  been  thought 
to  withstand  spring  frosts  better  than  Souhegan.  After  the 
Doolittle  passed  the  zenith  of  its  popularity,  these  two  varieties 
long  stood  as  the  representative  berries. 

Virginia. — A  variety  controlled  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery 
Co.,  of  Rio  Vista,  Va.  Said  to  be  large,  jet  black,  round,  coni- 
cal, moderately  firm,  of  excellent  quality,  holding  out  well  at  the 
end  of  the  season.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  317. 

Wade.—  Found  by  John  Wade,  of  Veedersburg,  Ind.,  in  the 
spring  of  1884,  under  a  grape  trellis  where  the  birds  had  dropped 
the  seed  the  summer  before.  Described  by  him  as  an  ironclad 
variety,  wonderfully  productive.  Fruit  showy  black,  firm,  of 
superior  quality,  ripening  about  with  Souhegan. 


176  BUSH-FRUITS 

Westchester.—A.  chance  seedling,  found  in  1861  in  the  gar- 
den of  Levi  J.  Mabie,  of  Tarrytown,  Westchester  county,  N.  Y. 
Advertised  quite  extensively  some  years  later,  but  apparently 
received  little  attention.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  318. 

Winona. — An  Ohio  variety,  introduced  in  1890.  Claimed  to  be 
perfectly  hardy,  vigorous,  standing  drought  well.  Fruit  large, 
early,  glossy  black,  of  excellent  quality,  and  a  good  shipper. 

Wonder. — An  everbearing  variety,  originating  with  J.  H. 
Bobbins,  of  Arcadia,  Ind.  Fruit  soft,  of  good  quality,  but  plants 
lacking  in  vigor  and  productiveness.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
Ill:  319. 

Woodside. — Originated  in  New  York,  from  seed  sown  in  a 
garden.  Canes  light  crimson  or  a  dark  scarlet.  Spines  few. 
Fruit  large,  black,  with  little  bloom,  sweet  and  juicy.  Produces 
a  second  crop  in  autumn. — Fuller. 

Wragg. — An  Ohio  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan. 

Yellow  Pearl. — A  yellow-cap  variety,  vigorous,  productive, 
often  producing  a  fall  crop.  Fruit  dark,  with  a  slight  bloom, 
sprightly . —Downing. 

Yosemite. — Mentioned  by  William  Parry*  as  too  unapproach- 
able on  account  of  its  wild  nature,  covered  as  it  is  with  thorns. 
It  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  the  berries  are  large  and  of  poor 
quality.— Cal.  Hort.  Rept.  1885:  233.  This  statement  would 
suggest  the  question  of  Rubus  leucodermis  parentage. 

RECOMMENDED  VARIETIES  OF  BLACK-CAPS. 

Among  varieties  widely  known  and  most  generally 
planted,  Tyler  and  Sonhegan  are  doubtless  the  best 
known  early  varieties,  though  now  being  replaced  by 
others,  especially  the  Palmer.  Gregg  is  still  the 
standard  late  berry,  though  the  Nemaha  is  preferred 
in  places,  while  Ohio  is  the  great  berry  for  evapor- 
ating purposes.  Other  varieties  well  and  favorably 
known  are  Lotta,  Older  and  Kansas.  Many  of  the 
newer  sorts  are  promising,  and  may  supersede  the 
present  leaders  when  better  known. 


*  Rural  Affairs  7:  81. 


PURPLE-CANE   FAMILY  177 

II.      THE   PURPLE -CANE   RASPBERRIES 
Eubus  neglectus 

In  this  group  I  have  endeavored  to  include  all  those 
varieties  which  are  intermediate  in  character  between 
the  red  and  the  black  raspberry.  Not  all  of  these  be- 
long to  the  true  Purple -cane  type.  The  Philadelphia 
and  its  numerous  seedlings  are  much  nearer  to  Rubus 
strigosus  than  to  Eubus  occidentalis.  They  propagate 
by  suckers,  though  somewhat  sparingly,  and  are,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  red  raspberries  of  a  slightly 
darker  hue,  while  the  true  Purple -cane  type  propagates 
by  tips,  being  like  black  raspberries  in  habit. 

No  point  in  the  history  of  the  raspberry  is  more 
interesting  than  to  note  the  number  of  varieties  of  the 
Rubus  neglectus  type,  or  Purple -cane  family,  as  it  was 
formerly  called,  which  have  come  into  public  notice. 
There  are  some  forty  varieties  which  can  be  definitely 
placed  in  this  class.  Of  a  large  number  which  have 
received  so  little  notice  in  print  that  it  is  impossible  to 
classify  them,  a  fair  proportion  undoubtedly  also  belong 
here.  Aside  from  these  there  have,  no  doubt,  been 
many  local  varieties  which  never  came  into  public 
notice.  I  well  remember  hearing,  when  a  boy,  that 
black  raspberries  would  turn  into  reds,  and  that  the 
purple  forms  occasionally  found  growing  wild  were 
undergoing  that  change.  I  remember  a  bush  of  this 
character  growing  in  the  exact  spot,  as  it  now  seems, 
where  a  black -cap  had  been  growing,  and  in  spite  of 
all  later  training  and  observation,  it  is  hard  to  get  away 
from  the  idea  that  that  bush  had  changed  its  politics! 


178  BUSH-FRUITS 

If  all  the  introduced  varieties  of  this  type  and  all  the 
forms  growing  wild  are  hybrids,  a  remarkable  tend- 
ency to  hybridization  in  this  genus  is  certainly  shown. 
The  comparative  abundance  and  productiveness  of  the 
type  leads  rather  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  a  distinct 
species,  but  the  variation  in  the  habit  of  propagation 
of  the  different  varieties,  some  being  almost  entirely 
reproduced  by  suckers,  while  others  propagate  princi- 
cipally  from  tips,  favors  the  idea  of  hybrid  origin. 

Hybrids  are  commonly  thought  to  be  unproductive, 
but  the  Shaffer  is  one  of  the  most  productive  varieties 
known.  No  one  can  say  positively,  however,  what  the 
origin  has  been,  and  for  practical  purposes  it  matters 
little.  The  type  has  long  been  in  cultivation,  and  is 
certainly  valuable.  Hybrids  are  evidently  more  com- 
mon, at  least  in  this  genus,  than  has  been  supposed. 
I  am  now  of  the  opinion  that  this  type,  like  the 
intermediate  type  between  the  blackberry  and  dew- 
berry, is  primarily  of  hybrid  origin. 

VARIETIES   OF   PURPLE -CANE   EASPBERRIES 

Addison.— An  apparent  hybrid  between  the  red  and  black  rasp- 
berry. Originated  on  the  grounds  of  L.  M.  Macomber,  of  North 
Ferrisburgh,  Vt.  Described  as  vigorous,  hardy,  and  moderately 
productive.  Canes  purplish  red,  resembling  the  black-caps  in 
habit,  and  rooting  at  the  tips,  though  rather  like  the  reds  in  color. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  firm,  juicy,  and  very  good,  with  the  flavor 
of  the  red  raspberry.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  256. 

Eabcock. — Sent  to  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  in 
1892,  by  Daniel  W.  Babcock.  Reported  to  be  productive  and  vig- 
orous, with  canes  of  a  peculiar  purplish  color,  thickly  beset  with 
weak  prickles.  Fruit  crumbling.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  259. 

Beclffwiih. — An  unnamed  chance  seedling,  which  originated  with 
Professor  M.  H.  Beckwith,  Newark,  Del.  Described. by  him  as  a 
red  berry,  and  not  purple  like  Shaffer;  reproducing  by  tips.  Fruit 


PURPLE-CANE    VARIETIES  179 

resembling  the  black-caps  in  shape,  aromatic,  of  excellent  quality, 
and  productive  as  far  as  tested.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  260. 

Cardinal  (Griesa)  .—Originated  on  the  grounds  of  A.  H.  Griesa, 
Lawrence,  Kans.,  in  1888,  apparently  from  the  seed  of  the  Shaffer. 
A  vigorous  grower,  propagating  by  tips  when  young,  but  throwing 
up  some  suckers  as  it  grows  older.  Fruits  large,  soft,  juicy,  dark; 
flavor  somewhat  musky.  Like  the  Shaffer,  it  appears  to  be  par- 
ticularly susceptible  to  anthracnose.  For  this  reason  the  origi- 
nator cuts  out  the  old  canes  in  winter  or  spring,  and  depends  upon 
a  new  growth  to  produce  fruit. 

Caroline. — Originated  with  S.  P.  Carpenter,  New  Eochelle, 
N.  Y.,  and  supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  Brinckle's  Orange,  crossed 
by  Golden-cap.  Canes  hardy  and  prolific,  but  not  very  vigorous. 
Spines  numerous.  Fruit  medium,  roundish -oblate,  pale  salmon, 
soft,  juicy,  subacid,  and  quality  fair.  Too  soft  for  market,  and 
dull  and  unattractive  in  appearance  when  over-ripe.  The  variety 
suckers  freely,  and  may  also  be  propagated  by  tips,  with  care. 

Catawissa. — This  variety  was  found  growing  in  a  Quaker  grave- 
yard, in  the  village  of  Catawissa,  Columbia  county,  Pa.  It  was 
brought  to  notice  by  Joshua  Pierce,  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Canes 
strong,  branching,  with  dark  brown  bark  and  few  hooked  spines. 
Fruit  medium,  dark  reddish  purple,  subacid,  juicy,  and  moder- 
ately good.  Vigorous  and  productive,  but  tender  at  the  North. 
Produced  fruit  in  autumn  to  some  extent.  Prof.  C.  G.  Page,  of 
Washington,  D.  C.,  mentions*  having  one  seedling  from  this  variety 
which  is  a  facsimile  of  the  black  raspberry,  two  vigorous,  orange 
colored  seedlings  of  delicious  flavor  and  one  real  scarlet,  simi- 
lar in  flavor  to  the  wild  scarlet  raspberry  of  New  England. 

Citizen. — A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  London,  Ont.  On  trial  at  the  experi- 
mental farms  of  Canada.  Promising  at  first,  but  less  so  later. 
Remarkably  productive.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  264. 

Colossal.— Sent  by  I.  F.  Street,  of  West  Middleton,  Ind.,  to  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  1892.  A  seedling  of 
Shaffer,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

Columbian. — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Cuthbert  grown  near 
the  Gregg,  on  the  grounds  of  J.  T.  Thompson,  Oneida,  N.  Y.  A 
variety  of  the  Shaffer  type,  which  it  very  much  resembles.  A 
strong,  vigorous  grower,  and  very  productive.  Fruit  large,  moder- 
ately juicy,  fairly  firm,  nearly  sweet,  somewhat  darker  in  color 
than  the  Shaffer,  ripening  a  little  later. 

Dictator. — Said  to  be  a  cross  between  Shaffer  and  Gregg,  pro- 
duced by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Eosa,  Cal.  Canes  much  like 

*Hov.  Mag.,  1857:  396. 


180  BUSH-FRUITS 

Shaffer,  much  shorter,  propagating  by  suckers.     Fruit  larger  than 
Shaffer,  bright  red.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  269. 

Duncan. —  A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  of  Ontario.  Described  as  having 
large,  purple  fruit,  of  better  quality  than  the  Shaffer,  ripening 
later,  and  very  productive.  Canes  strong,  vigorous,  propagating 
both  by  suckers  and  by  tips. 

Early  Prolific. — A  seedling  raised  from  the  Philadelphia  by 
Oscar  Felton,  of  Camden  county,  N.  J.  Crozier  states*  that  it 
is  several  generations  removed  from  the  Philadelphia.  Hardy, 
productive,  free  from  thorns.  Fruit  firm,  of  good  size,  with  a 
harsh  and  acid  flavor. 

Ellisdale.—A.  variety  of  the  Purple -cane  type,  found  growing 
wild  on  the  Ellisdaie  farm,  in  Iowa,  in  1856,  by  J.  E.  Johnson. 
Introduced  by  H.  A.  Terry,  of  Crescent,  Iowa.  Canes  strong, 
light  red,  smooth,  with  a  few  straight  spines  near  the  base  and 
an  occasional  hooked  one  on  the  upper  portion;  propagating  by 
tips.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oval,  light  purple,  with  a  whitish 
bloom;  rather  firm,  and  of  good  quality.  Elsdale,  from  Nebraska, 
mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine  1865:  122,  is  probably  this. 

Eureka. — A  seedling  of  the  third  generation  from  Shaffer, 
being  larger  and  brighter  red;  also  said  to  be  more  compact  in 
habit,  and  more  productive.  Originated  with  Luther  Burbank. 

Ganargua. — Found  growing  wild  by  Stephen  Katkamier,  of 
Farmington,  Ontario  county,  N.  Y.,  about  1867.  Described  as  a 
vigorous  grower,  hardy,  early,  and  productive,  possessing  the 
everbearing  habit;  spines  numerous.  Fruit  large,  delicate,  and 
juicy,  reasonably  firm,  dark  red,  approaching  purplish  brown. 
Propagates  from  tips. 

Garden  (Doolittle's  Red  Flavored  Black-Cap).  A  variety  in- 
troduced by  H.  H.  Doolittle,  of  Oaks  Corners,  N.  Y.  The  Purple - 
cane  raspberry  was  also  known  under  this  name.  Whether  this 
is  the  same,  or  whether,  indeed,  it  might  have  been  a  true  black- 
cap, it  is  difficult  to  say. 

Gardiner. — Mentioned  as  a  new  variety  of  unknown  origin, 
intermediate  between  the  Purple -cane  and  the  black -cap. 

Garnet. — A  seedling  of  the  Philadelphia,  produced  in  1885  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Described  as 
hardy,  vigorous,,  and  productive.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  pur- 
plish red,  slightly  conical,  of  good  quality,  rather  soft,  ripening 
late.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill :  276. 

Gladstone  (Carpenter's  No.  2,  Erie).     A  chance  seedling,  orig- 


*Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  111:271. 


PURPLE-CANE    VARIETIES  181 

mating  with  Charles  Carpenter,  of  Kelley's  Island,  Ohio,  who 
sent  it  out  about  1888,  first  as  Carpenter's  No.  2,  and  then  as 
Erie.  Later  it  was  introduced  by  Green's  Nursery  Co.,  of 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  as  Gladstone.  Described  as  vigorous  and  hardy, 
producing  considerable  fruit  in  autumn.  Fruit  medium  size,  dark 
red,  of  excellent  quality. 

Rildreth. — "Introduced  by  Isaac  Hildreth,  of  Big  Stream  Point, 
N.  Y.,  as  a  native  sort  found  near  that  place.  It  does  not  grow 
readily  from  the  tips,  and  produces  few  suckers.  Canes  rather 
strong,  spines  purplish,  stiff,  numerous.  Fruit  medium,  roundish 
oblate,  dull  red  or  maroon,  thick  bloom.  Half  firm,  juicy,  sweet, 
subacid,  and  similar  to  Purple  Cane  in  flavor." — Downing. 

Hybrid  Crimson  Mammoth. — Found  wild  at  Adams,  N.  Y.,  by 
Dr.  E.  R.  Maxson,  who  brought  it  into  cultivation  and  described 
it  in  the  Horticulturist,  but  apparently  never  introduced  it. — 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  284. 

Merkel. —  Described  as  perfectly  hardy  and  productive,  not 
throwing  up  suckers.  Fruit  firm,  of  excellent  quality,  with 
somewhat  of  a  currant  flavor.  Darker  than  Cuthbert,  resembling 
Gregg  in  shape  and  size. — John  F.  Rupp,  in  American  Garden, 
1891:  369. 

Montclair. —  Originated  on  the  grounds  of  E.  and  J.  C.  Wil- 
liams, Montclair,  N.  J.,  and  supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  the 
Philadelphia.  Canes  strong,  vigorous,  light  red,  often  branch- 
ing. Spines  quite  numerous  at  the  base,  rather  slender,  pur- 
plish. Propagates  moderately  by  suckers.  Fruit  medium  to 
large,  roundish  oblate,  dark  red  or  crimson.  Flesh  quite  firm, 
juicy,  sweet,  sprightly,  and  of  good  quality. —  Downing.  Very 
near  to  Bubus  strigosus;  perhaps  it  ought  to  be  included  there. 

Mote  Everbearing. — Raised  by  L.  S.  Mote,  of  West  Milton, 
Ohio.  An  everbearing  variety  resembling  Catawissa. — Downing. 

Mrs.  Wood. — Originated  with  Mrs.  Reuben  Wood,  near  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  Described  as  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit  of 
medium  size,  roundish,  obtuse,  purplish,  with  a  red  bloom; 
moderately  firm,  juicy,  sprightly,  subacid,  ripening  late. 

Muskingum  (Shaffer's  Sister,  Melott's  Favorite).— Originated 
in  the  orchard  of  Mrs.  Simeon  Ellis,  Coshocton  county,  Ohio, 
near  the  Muskingum  River.  Named  and  introduced  by  James 
Madison,  of  Chili,  Ohio.  Similar  to  Shaffer,  but  not  as  tall, 
vigorous;  fruit  of  about  the  same  color,  equally  soft.  Season 
medium  to  late. 

New  Rochelle. — Supposed  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Catawissa. 
Raised  by  S.  P.  Carpenter,  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  and  apparently 
introduced  by  E.  W.  Carpenter,  of  Rye,  N.  Y.,  though  the 


182  BUSH-FRUITS 

Country  Gentleman  for  1881  speaks  of  it  as  having  originated 
with  W.  S.  Carpenter.  Said  to  be  less  vigorous,  earlier,  and 
smaller  than  the  Shaffer,  propagating  only  by  tips.  Fruit  round- 
ish, obtuse  conical,  red  or  dark  maroon,  with  a  slight  bloom. 
Flesh  quite  firm,  juicy  and  rich. 

Norwood  (Norwood's  Prolific). — A  variety  originated  in  Massa- 
chusetts. A  vigorous  grower,  propagating  by  tips.  Fruit  of 
good  size,  similar  to  Philadelphia. — Gar.  Month.  17:  333. 

Percy. — A  hybrid  between  Gregg  and  Cuthbert,  produced  by 
Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Said  to  be  of 
large  size  and  best  quality,  sweeter  than  Shaffer,  but  otherwise 
much  like  it.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  298. 

Philadelphia. — A  chance  seedling,  found  wild  near  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  about  1835,  which  proved  itself  to  be  hardy,  pro- 
ductive, and  well  suited  to  light  soils  in  the  southern  portions  of 
the  Middle  states.  Described  as  vigorous,  tall,  branching,  almost 
free  from  spines.  Fruit  medium,  roundish,  dark  crimson  or  pur- 
plish red;  flesh  rather  soft,  moderately  juicy,  mild  subacid. — 
Downing.  This  variety  resembles  Eubus  strigosus  much  more 
closely  than  do  the  Catawissa,  Shaffer,  and  others  of  the  true 
Purple-cane  type;  yet  it  is  evidently  intermediate  between  the 
red  and  black  raspberries,  and  not  a  true  red  raspberry.  Al- 
though propagating  by  suckers,  these  are  produced  but  sparingly, 
and  the  fruit  is  darker  in  color  than  the  true  red  raspberries. 
Dr.  Morse,  in  the  Missouri  Agricul.  Report  for  1886,  p.  362,  says: 
"A  year  ago  I  found  a  Philadelphia  rooted  at  the  tip  in  my 
grounds.  This  year  I  watched  them,  and  find  that  there  is  quite  a 
tendency  to  root  at  the  tips.  If  put  in  too  deeply  they  damp  off. 
I  think  it  is  a  different  variety." 

Purple  Cane  (Purple  Prolific,  English  Purple,  Red  Prolific, 
American  Red  Cane,  Garden  Raspberry,  Huntsville,  English  Red, 
Allen  and  English  Brown  erroneously) . — This  is  probably  the 
oldest  cultivated  variety  of  this  type.  It  was  grown  about  New 
York  at  least  seventy -five  years  ago.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  variety.  Described  as  having  strong,  tall,  recurved 
canes,  often  branching,  reddish  purple.  Spines  rather  long,  stiff, 
and  moderately  numerous.  Berries  small,  purple,  good,  but  too 
soft  for  market. 

Purple  Dulcet. — Mentioned  in  the  Illinois  Horticultural  Society 
Report,  1875:  268. 

Bed  Cane. — Probably  a  synonym  of  Purple  Cane. — Hov.  Mag. 
1858:  420. 

Redfield—  Sent  out  for  trial  in  1894  by  J.  Wragg  &  Sons,  of 
Waukee,  la.  First  offered  for  sale  by  the  Iowa  Seed  Company,  of 


PURPLE-CANE    VARIETIES  183 

Des  Moines,  in  the  fall  of  1895.  Discovered  on  the  farm  of  D.  W. 
Humphrew,  near  Redfield,  Iowa.  Resembles  Shaffer  in  color  and 
size,  but  said  to  be  of  better  quality.  Propagates  by  tips. — Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  304. 

Reliance. — A  descendant  of  Philadelphia,  raised  by  O.  L.  Fel- 
ten,  of  N.  J.  Described  as  hardy,  vigorous  and  very  productive. 
Canes  strong,  branching,  with  greenish  spines.  Fruit  large, 
nearly  globular  or  roundish  oblate,  dark  red  or  crimson,  firm, 
juicy,  sweet  and  sprightly,  but  not  of  high  flavor.  Figured  in 
Gardener's  Monthly  1877:  302.  Practically  a  strigosus  variety. 

Salzer  Everbearing  Red. — Origin  Illinois.  Introduced  by  the 
John  A.  Salzer  Seed  Co.,  Lacrosse,  Wis.,  as  a  cross  between  the 
Shaffer  and  the  Marlboro.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  306. 

Sarah. — Originated  by  Professor  William  Saunders,  London, 
Ont.,  from  the  seed  of  the  Shaffer.  Described  as  a  moderate 
grower,  suckering  freely,  and  propagating  only  that  way.  Fruit 
large,  round,  deep  garnet,  firm,  very  juicy,  pleasantly  acid,  and 
exceptionally  rich,  ripening  after  Cuthbert. —  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill:  306. 

Saunders  Hybrid  (No.  53?).— A  hybrid  between  Philadelphia 
and  Mammoth  Cluster,  produced  by  William  Saunders,  of  London, 
Ont.  Said  to  be  productive,  large,  dark  red,  propagating  from 
tips  only.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  303. 

Shaffer  (Shaffer's  Colossal). — This  is,  at  the  present  time, 
.doubtless,  the  best  known  variety  of  this  type.  It  originated  in 
the  garden  of  George  Shaffer,  near  Scotsville,  Monroe  county, 
N.  Y.,  about  1871.  Introduced  by  Charles  A.  Green,  of  Roches- 
ter. It  is  a  vigorous,  upright  grower,  and  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive raspberries  known.  Fruit  large,  dark  red  or  purple,  mod- 
erately firm,  sprightly,  subacid.  Its  color  is  too  dark  to  be 
attractive,  but  if  picked  before  fully  ripe,  while  yet  red,  it  looks 
fairly  well  in  market.  An  excellent  canning  variety.  It  also 
dries  well,  being  of  more  attractive  color  when  dried  than  true 
red  raspberries,  and  producing  more  pounds  of  dried  fruit  per 
bushel.  In  quality  it  is  not  far  behind  the  red  raspberries,  with  a 
richness  not  possessed  by  them. 

Shaffer  Seedling  No.  5. — A  seedling  of  Shaffer,  mentioned  as 
on  trial  at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

Smith  Purple. — Originated  with  B.  F.  Smith,  of  Lawrence, 
Kans.  Possesses  all  the  characteristics  of  the  black -cap  except  in 
color  of  fruit,  which  is  of  medium  size,  good  quality,  and  has  the 
black-cap  flavor.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  310. 

Stayman  No.  1. — A  seedling  of  Shaffer  originated  with  Dr.  J. 
Stayman,  of  Leavenworth,  Kans.,  in  1884.  Said  to  be  large,  re- 


184  BUSH-FRUITS 

sembling  the  Marlboro,  but  later.  Firm,  of  good  quality,  and 
propagating  from  tips. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  311. 

Superb  (Churchman's  Superb).  Originated  by  John  Church- 
man, of  Burlington,  N.  J.,  and  supposed  by  him  to  be  a  seedling 
of  Philadelphia.  Plant  hardy,  moderately  vigorous,  with  large, 
stout  canes,  which  bear  abundantly  and  propagate  by  suckers, 
which  increase  slowly.  Fruit  large,  rich,  tart  and  juicy,  dark 
scarlet  and  rather  crumbly.  Thought  by! some  to  be  a  cross  be- 
tween the  Philadelphia  and  some  European  sort. 

Surprise. — Introduced  by  H.  G.  Breese,  Hoosick,  N.  Y.  De- 
scribed as  a  dark  red  variety,  having  the  flavor  of  red  raspberries 
and  firmness  of  berry  and  growth  of  cane  of  the  black-caps;  has 
a  tendency  to  fruit  in  autumn.  Apparently  of  little  value. 

Wetherbee. — Spoken  of  as  a  red  variety  from  New  York.* 
Described  as  hardy,  vigorous,  with  few  spines,  and  a  moderate 
bearer.  Fruit  small,  round,  purple,  with  slight  whitish  pubes- 
cence, moderately  firm,  of  sprightly  flavor,  ripening  late. 

EECOMMENDED  VARIETIES 

Shaffer  and  Columbian  are  the  two  best  known  and 
most  desirable  varieties  of  the  Purple -cane  Group. 


III.      THE   AMERICAN   RED   RASPBERRIES 
Rubus  strigosus 

The  native  red  raspberry  of  the  United  States  has 
been  much  longer  in  cultivation  than  the  black  rasp- 
berry or  the  blackberry,  but  is  much  younger  than  the 
European  berry.  In  spite  of  its  youthfulness,  it  has 
long  since  outrun  its  European  cousin  and  gained  con- 
trol of  the  commercial  red  raspberry -growing  of  the 
country.  While  it  may  be  slightly  behind  the  European 
berry  in  quality  of  fruit,  it  is  so  thoroughly  at  home, 
and  adapts  itself  so  readily  to  cultivation,  that  it  has 
become  a  far  more  desirable  market  berry.  One  great 

*Gardener's  Monthly  22-.  81. 


BOTANICAL  CHARACTERS  185 

objection  to  the  red  raspberry  as  a  market  fruit  is  its 
long  bearing  season,  necessitating  so  many  pickings  to 
secure  the  crop.  The  American  sorts  have  the  advan- 
tage in  this  regard,  although  even  they  ripen  too 
unevenly.  They  are  hardier,  and  usually  have  some- 
what more  slender  canes. 

Two  species  are  included  in  the  true  red  raspberries 
of  cultivation, — the  European  red  raspberry,  Rubus 
Idceus,  and  the  American  red,  Rubus  strigosus.  Though 
similar  in  general  appearance  and  in  their  botanical 
characters,  there  are  essential  points  of  difference. 
For  the  strictly  botanical  differences,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  description  of  the  two  species.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  that,  in  general,  the  European 
plant  is  rather  stouter  and  less  free  in  its  habit  of 
growth,  the  leaves  are  a  little  whiter  beneath,  thicker, 
and  generally  somewhat  wrinkled,  and  the  canes  are 
light  colored,  bearing  purple  prickles  in  some  varieties. 
The  prickles  on  the  finer  parts  are  firmer,  recurved  and 
less  numerous. 

The  horticultural  differences  are  more  marked  than 
the  botanical  differences,  the  chief  one  being  the  habit 
of  the  European  raspberry  to  continue  bearing  more  or 
less  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  season  after 
ripening  begins.  This  is  a  feature  which,  while  it  may 
be  desirable  in  a  home  berry,  is  a  disadvantage  in  a 
market  berry.  Another  important  point  of  difference 
between  the  two  species  is  in  hardiness.  Few,  if  any 
of  the  European  varieties  can  be  depended  upon  to 
endure  our  winters,  except  in  the  most  favorable  locali- 
ties, without  protection,  and  even  then  they  are  un- 


186  BUSH-FRUITS 

reliable.  It  is  also  probable  that  our  hot,  dry  summers 
are  as  important  a  factor  in  working  their  injury  as  the 
cold  of  winter.  No  better  evidence  of  their  lack  of 
adaptability  to  our  climate  is  needed  than  the  fact  that 
while  there  have  been  something  like  one  hundred 
varieties  belonging  to  this  species  introduced  in  the 
United  States,  probably  not  over  five  or  six  are  grown 
at  all  at  the  present  time,  and  these  only  in  a  very 
small  way.  The  fruit  is  generally  conceded  to  be  of 
better  quality  than  our  American  reds,  and  if  the 
plants  had  proved  satisfactory,  this  species  would  natur- 
ally have  been  in  the  ascendency.  The  following  ac- 
count of  the  history  of  the  red  raspberries  was  con- 
tributed to  The  American  Garden  by  the  writer. 

HISTORY  AND  FUTURE  OP  THE  KED  RASPBERRIES 

The  history  of  the  European  raspberry,  Eubus  Idceus,  runs  far 
back  into  the  ages.  It  it  mentioned  by  Cato,  who  lived  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  a  natural 
product  of  Roman  territory.  Pliny  the  Elder,  supposed  to  have 
written  about  A.  D.  45,  mentions  it  as  one  of  the  wild  brambles 
which  the  Greeks  called  "Idea,"  having  derived  its  name  from 
Mount  Ida,  in  Asia  Minor,  at  the  foot  of  which  lay  the  renowned 
city  of  Troy.  In  this  mountain  were  said  to  dwell  fabulous  be- 
ings, who  were  credited  with  being  the  first  to  work  iron  and 
copper,  and  with  having  introduced  music  and  rhythm  into  Greece. 
Perhaps  we  may  infer  that  in  the  exercise  of  the  marvelous  powers 
which  they  were  alleged  to  possess,  they  produced  this  glorious 
fruit  to  appease  some  angry  god,  or  gladden  the  eye  and  delight 
the  taste  of  a  gracious  princess.  Although  deriving  its  name  from 
this  locality,  where  it  was  particularly  abundant,  the  raspberry  is 
indigenous  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  It 
is  impossible  to  tell  whether  the  plants  were  cultivated  at  this  early 


«|i  The  Defcription. 

^€  jframbope  iSafeinDeof 
^emble,tt>l)ofeieaues  ant) 


nuc  id  rougi)  anD  pucbiep  3noj  fet  uritty 
fo  man?  (Ijarpe  pztcUles>3  and  t'om  times 
toif^out  pi(cfeies>efpeciaitp  tljenexue 


bertie  ts  re&De^bat  ot^erwife  it  i^lpbe 


petenevu  H;utc 

tlje  ncpt  peere  Doo  bjing  foojt^  teto 

fiowcr^anlsfnute, 


^^e  f  rambopeis  foimDe  m  fome 


ant)  in  t^tiS  Countnetijeppianteititi 
garDen?J  ,  anD  it  louetlj 
placet 
notoften* 


Fig.  29.    Description  of  -the  raspberry  by  Dodoens,  1578. 


188  BUSH-FRUITS 

date,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  gods,  like  many  mortals  of  the 
present  day,  were  obliged  to  be  content  with  the  precarious  supply 
to  be  found  growing  at  will  in  grove  and  glade.  Palladeus,  how- 
ever, a  Roman  writer  of  the  fourth  century,  mentions  the  rasp- 
berry as  one  of  the  cultivated  fruits  of  that  time.  From  a  work 
written  by  Conrad  Heresbach,  entitled  "Rei  Rusticee,"  published 
in  1570,  and  afterward  translated  by  Barnaby  Googe,  it  appears 
that  raspberries  were  little,  attended  to  during  that  period.  John 
Parkinson,  in  his  "Paradisus,"  published  in  1629,  speaks  of  red, 
white  and  thornless  raspberries  as  suitable  for  the  English  climate. 
Stephen  Switzer,  in  1724,  only  mentions  three  kinds.  George  W. 
Johnson,  in  his  "History  of  English  Gardening,"  published  in 
1829,  gives  the  number  of  cultivated  varieties  as  twenty-three. 
From  these  detached  notes  it  appears  that  although  cultivated  at 
least  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  century,  it  nevertheless  did  not 
come  to  be  considered  a  fruit  of  any  importance  and  demand  at- 
tention until  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  or  later. 

The  raspberry  never  seems  to  have  been  held  in  such  high 
esteem  for  its  medicinal  properties  as  the  blackberry.  Gerard 
Dewes,  in  his  translation  of  "Dodoen's  Niewe  Herball,"  or  "His- 
torie  of  Plantes,"  published  in  1578,  enumerates  the  following 
"vertues:" 

w  The  leaves,  tender  springes,  fruit  and  roote  of  this  Bramble 
are  not  much  unlyke,  in  vertue  and  working,  to  the  leaves,  shutes, 
fruite  and  rootes  of  the  other  Bramble,  as  Dioscorides  writeth. 

"  The  flowers  of  Easpis  are  good  to  be  bruysed  with  hony,  and 
layde  to  the  inflammations  and  hoate  humours  gathered  togither  in 
the  eyes,  and  Erysipelas  or  wilde  fire,  for  it  quencheth  such  hoate 
burninges. 

"  They  be  also  good  to  be  dronken  with  water  of  them  that  have 
weake  stomackes." 

The  illustration  (Fig.  29 )  shows  a  specimen  of  the  text  of  this 
work,  giving  the  description,  habitat  and  time  of  flowering  of  the 
Framboye,  Raspis  or  Hyndberie,  as  the  raspberry  was  then  called 
in  French,  English  and  German,  respectively.  The  figure  of  the 
plant  (Fig.  30)  is  reproduced  from  John  Gerarde's  "Historie  of 
Plantes,"  published  in  1597. 


Tig.  30.    Gerarde's  picture  of  the  raspberry,  1597. 


190  BUSH-FRUITS 

After  the  settlement  of  this  country  the  first  attempts  at  culti- 
vation, as  with  other  fruits,  were  with  varieties  which  had  been 
familiar  in  England.  In  the  second  edition  of  William  R.  Prince's 
"  Pomological  Manual,"  published  in  1832,  fourteen  varieties  are 
described  and  six  others  mentioned  as  meriting  culture.  All  but 
four  of  these  are  probably  varieties  of  R.  Idceus,  although  in  some 
cases  it  is  impossible  to  decide  with  certainty.  Of  these  four,  at 
least  three  appear  to  be  forms  of  E.  strlgosus  from  different  lo- 
calities, while  the  fourth  may  belong  to  the  Rubus  neglectus,  or 
Purple -cane  type.  One  of  the  varieties  which  appears  to  be 
European  may  also  belong  here.  The  American  Pomological 
Society,  at  its  second  session  in  1853,  recommended  four  varieties 
for  general  cultivation,  and  commended  one  more  as  promising,  all 
of  which  were  foreign  sorts.  In  the  catalogue,  as  recommended 
by  the  last  session  in  1891,  there  appear  fourteen  varieties  of 
Rubus  Idceus,  one  of  which  is  placed  there  doubtfully,  and  six  of 
which  are  seedlings  of  American  origin.  There  are  also  twenty  - 
nine  native  varieties,  six  of  which  are  classed  under  R.  neglectus, 
fourteen  under  R.  occidentalis,  and  nine  under  R.  strigosus.  This, 
however,  is  far  from  representing  the  true  state  of  comparative 
cultivation  of  the  foreign  and  native  species  and  varieties  at  the 
present  time,  for  of  the  fourteen  foreign  varieties  and  their  seed- 
lings still  retained,  not  over  five  or  six  are  now  cultivated  to  any 
extent,  and  these  only  in  very  limited  areas. 

While  the  Rubus  Idceus  type  is  everywhere  acknowledged  to  be 
much  superior  in  the  quality  of  its  fruit,  it  is  not  able  to  maintain 
itself  against  summer  suns  and  winter  winds,  and  has  had  to  give 
place  to  hardier  sorts,  better  able  to  fight  their  own  battles  and 
emerge  from  them  bearing  abundant  trophies  of  fruit,  not  so  ex- 
quisite, perhaps,  yet  more  substantial  and  sure.  Moreover,  with 
the  gradual  improvement  which  has  gone  on,  there  is  at  present 
little  need  for  foreign  varieties.  The  best  of  our  natives  yield 
fruit  which  is  doubtless  far  superior  to  that  which  gratified  the 
gods  on  Mount  Ida  in  those  days  of  war  and  wonder.  Among 
the  first  varieties  of  R.  strigosus  to  become  prominent  were  the 
Stoever  and  Brandywine.  The  former  is  a  form  of  the  American 
red,  found  wild  near  Lake  Dunmore,  in  Vermont,  by  Jefferson  F. 


EVOLUTION  OF   THE  RASPBERRY  191 

Stoever,  and  removed  to  his  garden  at  Tacony,  near  Philadelphia, 
where  it  first  fruited  in  1859.  The  Brandy  wine,  or  Susqueco,  as  it 
was  at  one  time  called  (Susqueco  being  the  Iridian  name  for 
Brandy  wine),  is  of  unknown  origin.  It  first  attracted  attention  in 
the  Wilmington  market,  and  was  for  a  time  called  Wilmington. 

We  are  accustomed  to  boast  of  the  marvelous  progress  in  all 
lines  of  American  development.  What  advance  can  we  show  in 
the  improvement  of  the  raspberry?  Some,  to  be  sure,  but  most  of 
it  has  been  mere  accident.  In  looking  up  the  history  of  varieties 
it  is  the  same  story  over  and  over  again — "  a  chance  seedling 
found  growing  wild,  etc."  Nearly  all  of  our  prominent  varieties 
have  originated  in  this  way.  A  few  men  have  gone  to  work  system- 
atically to  breed  and  develop  varieties.  The  first  and  most 
prominent  of  these  was  Dr.  William  D.  Brinckle",  of  Philadelphia — 
a  busy  physician,  who,  having  a  taste  for  pomology,  pursued  it  as 
a  means  of  recreation  from  other  duties.  He  experimented  with 
strawberries  and  pears,  as  well  as  with  raspberries.  So  important 
was  his  work  in  these  lines  that  he  seems  to  be  much  better  re- 
membered for  that  than  for  his  medical  reputation,  although  he 
was  successful  and  prominent  in  this  field  also.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Pomological  Society  at  its  second  session,  and  for 
many  years  vice-president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Horticultural 
Society,  repeatedly  refusing  its  presidency.  Unfortunately  his 
work  on  raspberries  was  with  the  Eubus  Idceus  species,  and  most  of 
the  varieties  which  he  produced  have  suffered  the  fate  of  the  class 
to  which  they  belonged;  yet  he  obtained  in  Brinckle 's  Orange  the 
variety  which  has  stood  as  the  desideratum  to  be  sought  in  quality 
to  the  present  day.  Another  who  achieved  good  results  in  this 
line  was  David  W.  Herstine,  of  Branchtown,  near  Philadelphia, 
the  originator  of  the  Herstine,  Saunders,  Ruby  and  Elizabeth  rasp- 
berries ;  yet  these  were  simply  seedlings  of  the  Allen,  grown  in 
alternate  rows  with  the  Philadelphia.  William  Saunders,  of 
Ontario,  has  also  produced  a  number  of  varieties,  some  of  which 
are  said  to  be  hybrids. 

Good  as  the  varieties  are  which  we  have,  we  want  further  im- 
provements. Nothing  is  good  enough  to  satisfy  human  demands. 
We  want  back  all  we  have  lost  in  giving  up  the  raspberry  of  our 


192  BUSH-FRUITS 

forefathers  beyond  the  sea ;  but  coupled  with  that,  we  want  all  we 
have  gained  from  the  hardier  species  of  our  own  country.  We 
want  a  red  raspberry  as  good  as  Brinckle"'s  Orange  in  quality, 
as  large  and  productive  as  Cuthbert  and  of  brighter  color,  as  hardy 
as  the  Turner,  and  we  want  it  on  a  black -cap  bush  without  the 
thorns.  Will  we  get  it?  The  Shaffer  is  our  nearest  approach  at 
present.  What  the  possibilities  of  careful,  systematic  and  pro- 
gressive breeding  are,  only  the  future  can  show. 

VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN   RED   RASPBERRIES 

American  Red  (Common  Red,  English  Red).— Prince  states 
in  the  Pomological  Manual  published  in  1832,  that  although  this  is 
a  native  of  New  York,  growing  naturally  in  the  Catskill  moun- 
tains, it  is  frequently  termed  English  Red.  He  says  the  shoots 
are  of  a  dark  red  hue  and  grow  very  long.  The  spines  on  the 
present  year's  shoots  are  purplish  in  color  near  the  base,  but 
greenish,  with  brown  or  purplish  barbs  or  points  on  the  upper 
part.  The  fruit  is  one  of  the  earliest  to  mature,  of  medium  size, 
fine  flavor  and  greatly  esteemed.  He  comments  on  the  fact  that 
this  is  the  only  variety  grown  to  any  extent  for  the  New  York 
market,  and  that  there  were  nearly  one  hundred  acres  on  Long 
Island  devoted  to  its  culture  at  that  time.  Evidently  this  is  a 
forerunner  of  American  Red  raspberry  culture,  but  undoubtedly 
plants  from  various  sources  passed  under  this  name.  In  fact, 
from  the  vague  use  of  the  term  in  early  writings,  it  seems  even 
possible  that  the  name  may  have  been  also  applied  to  plants  of  the 
Rubus  neglectus  or  Rubus  Idceus  types. 

Andrews. — Thought  by  J.  T.  Lovett  to  be  identical  with  High- 
land Hardy,  while  James  Smith,  of  Iowa,  is  positive  that  this  and 
the  Highland  Hardy  are  only  the  Kirtland  renamed. 

Bagley  Perpetual  (Bagley's  Everbearing). — Originated  about 
1854,  at  New  Haven,  Conn.  Introduced  in  1858  by  A.  Bridgeman, 
a  florist  of  New  York.  Said  to  be  hardy,  and  comparatively 
spineless.  Fruit  medium,  nearly  round,  dark  crimson,  rather 
soft,  acid,  of  poor  quality.  Bears  a  second  crop  in  autumn. 

Brandywine  (Susqueco,  Wilmington). — Said  to  have  been  found 
near  Brandywine  Creek  at  Wilmington,  Del.  It  first  attracted 
attention  in  the  Wilmington  market,  and  was  for  a  time  called  the 
Wilmington.  Mr.  Edward  Tatnell,  of  that  city,  undertook  to  in- 
troduce it  under  the  name  Susqueco,  the  Indian  name  for  the 
Brandywine.  Described  as  stocky,  hardy,  with  large,  reddish 


AMERICAN  BED    VARIETIES  193 

colored  canes,  suckering  freely.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  bright 
scarlet,  firm,  juicy,  of  inferior  quality. 

Bristol. — According  to  William  Parry,  this  is  a  strong,  hardy, 
vigorous  grower,  suckering  immoderately.  Fruit  resembling  the 
Brandy  wine,  but  not  so  large  nor  firm. 

Canada  Red.— Mentioned  by  Prince  in  1832,  as  a  variety  first 
noticed  by  him  growing  along  the  roadside  a  few  miles  from  Mon- 
treal, where  the  plants  were  to  be  met  with  in  great  abundance. 
He  describes  it  as  of  medium  size,  resembling  the  common  red  in 
quality,  with  a  high  and  rather  peculiar  flavor. 

Carpenter  No.  1. — A  vigorous  grower,  early,  fairly  productive. 
Fruit  small  to  medium,  bright  red. 

Coleman  No.  1. — Not  a  very  vigorous  grower,  but  fairly  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  small,  soft,  fine-flavored. — Ninth  Annual  Report 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta. 

Cole  Prolific.—  Exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  in  1893  by 
the  Fruit  Growers'  Association  of  Ontario.  Found  growing  wild 
on  the  farm  of  R.  D.  Cole,  of  Port  Dalhousie,  Ontario. 

Crimson  Beauty. — Found  by  Dr.  Stay  man,  of  Leavenworth, 
Kans.,  in  1875,  growing  in  a  patch  of  Imperial.  Introduced  by 
A.  M.  Purdy,  of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.  Described  as  large,  bright, 
glossy,  scarlet,  round  to  oblong,  with  a  pleasant  sprightly  flavor, 
early,  hardy  and  productive.  Deficient  in  pollen  production,  and 
must  be  planted  near  some  free  pollen -producing  sort  to  bear 
well.  It  has  never  proved  valuable  in  the  eastern  states. 

Cuthbert  (Conover,  Queen  of  the  Market,  Quinby's  Favorite). — 
Probably  the  best  known  of  all  red  raspberries,  and  the  most 
desirable  single  market  sort.  It  was  a  chance  seedling  found  by 
Thomas  Cuthbert  in  his  garden  at  Riverdale,  now  in  New  York 
city,  about  1865.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous,  upright  grower,  some- 
times branching;  spines  short,  stout,  purplish,  rather  numerous 
toward  the  base,  but  often  wanting  toward  the  tips.  Fruit  large, 
dark  crimson,  obtuse  conical,  grains  rather  small  and  compact. 
Flesh  quite  firm,  juicy,  sprightly,  and  of  fair  quality.  Its  chief 
defect  as  a  market  berry  is  its  color,  which  is  rather  too  dark. 
Mr.  Conover,  the  asparagus  man,  seeing  its  value,  spread  it  in 
his  neighborhood,  giving  it  undesignedly  the  name  Conover.  In 
New  Jersey  it  was  disseminated  by  William  Parry  as  Queen  of 
the  Market.  As  yet,  no  other  variety  has  displaced  it. 

Eastern  King. — Found  by  O.  A.  King,  of  Deering,  Maine,  in  a 
garden  in  the  town  of  Westbrook,  about  1864  or  1865.  A  dull  red 
sort,  said  to  be  larger,  earlier  and  more  productive  than  the  Cuth- 
bert, though  this  claim  has  not  been  substantiated  in  Michi- 
gan.—Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  111:270. 


194  BUSH-FRUITS 

Golden  Queen. — This  was  found  on  the  grounds  of  Ezra  Stokes, 
of  Camden,  N.  J.,  about  1883,  in  a  twelve -acre  patch  of  Cuthbert. 
In  fact,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  it  is  a  Cuthbert  with  yellow 
fruit.  Sports  in  color  from  this  variety  are  not  uncommon.  In- 
stances are  recorded  where  part  of  the  berries  on  a  shoot  have 
been  yellow  and  part  red,  and  even  the  individual  fruits  have 
been  variegated.  The  variety  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
yellow- fruited  sorts,  possessing  much  the  same  qualities  as  its 
parent,  the  Cuthbert.  While  light  colored  varieties  are  not  in  de- 
mand for  market,  a  few  plants  for  home  use  are  always  desirable. 

Hansell. — A  chance  seedling  found  on  the  farm  of  Hansell 
Bros.,  near  Beverly,  N.  J.,  about  1875.  Introduced  by  J.  T. 
Lovett  in  1882.  Moderately  vigorous,  suckering  freely,  with  dark, 
reddish  green,  hairy  shoots.  Leaves  finely  wrinkled.  Fruit  of 
medium  size,  dark  red,  with  slight  bloom,  rather  soft,  subacid, 
pleasant,  not  rich.  Obtained  considerable  prominence  at  one 
time  as  an  early  variety.  Said  to  be  difficult  to  transplant  and  to 
propagate  from  root  cuttings. 

Harris.— Sent  out  by  Z.  H.  Harris,  of  Eochester,  N.  Y.,  in 
1889.  Plant  fairly  vigorous,  but  of  dwarf  habit,  standing  well 
without  pinching.  Fruit  large,  bright,  firm,  and  of  good  flavor. 
Not  quite  hardy. 

Highland  Hardy  (Highland  Antwerp).— A  sport  or  chance  seed- 
ling which  originated  near  Highland  village,  on  the  Hudson,  about 
1870.  Very  early,  but  fruit  medium  to  small,  red,  of  poor  flavor. 
Said  to  be  very  susceptible  to  injury  from  summer  heat. 

Hudson  River  Red. — A  native  red  variety.  Exhibited  before  the 
Cincinnati  Horticultural  Society  in  1860  by  F.  W.  Slack,  of 
Kentucky,  who  was  at  that  time  growing  it  for  the  Cincinnati 
market.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  284. 

Imperial  Red  (Bed  Imperial).— A  variety  grown  in  New  Jer- 
sey, where  it  proved  hardy.  Fruit  medium,  roundish,  scarlet, 
half  firm,  juicy,  pleasant.  Found  to  succeed  better  in  the  South 
than  most  varieties. 

I.  X.  L. — A  chance  seedling  discovered  by  Charles  Schlessler, 
of  Naperville,  111.,  in  1887.  Said  to  be  vigorous;  canes  purplish. 
Fruit  light,  dull  red,  of  medium  size,  crumbling,  nearly  sweet,  of 
good  flavor. 

Kenyon.— Introduced  by  O.  A.  Kenyon,  of  McGregor,  la.,  who 
found  it  growing  among  black  raspberries  about  1885.  Bush  of 
medium  size,  quite  vigorous  and  fairly  productive.  Fruit  quite 
large,  firm,  but  crumbling  a  little,  deep  dark  red,  with  fair  flavor. 
Clings  tightly  to  the  receptacle. 

London, — Originated  by  Frank  W.  Loudon,  of  Janesville,  Wis., 


AMERICAN  BED    VARIETIES  195 

who  states  that  it  is  a  seedling  of  the  Turner  crossed  with  the 
Cuthbert.  Canes  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive.  Berry  as  large 
as  or  larger  than  Cuthbert,  somewhat  conical.  Grains  large,  with  a 
suture,  firm  and  of  a  good  red  color,  but  not  equal  to  Cuthbert  in 
quality.  One  of  the  promising  newer  varieties.  Introduced  by 
Charles  A.  Green,  of  Rochester. 

Marlboro. — A  popular  variety  originated  by  A.  J.  Caywood, 
of  Marlboro,  N.  Y.,  who  described  it  as  follows:*  "A  cross  of 
the  Highland  Hardy,  and  a  seedling  started  from  English  Globe 
and  the  Hudson  River  Antwerp  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  a  larger 
grower,  with  stronger  canes  than  any  known  variety ;  hardy  in  the 
fullest  sense;  berries  averaging  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  when  not  retarded  by  long,  severe  drought,  many  of 
them  will  average  one  inch.  It  will  remain  four  days  on  the 
bushes  after  ripe,  and  is  then  marketable.  It  is  bright  crimson  in 
color,  and  does  not  lose  its  brilliancy  when  over-ripe."  Its  pa- 
rentage would  indicate  a  mixture  of  Rubus  Idceus  blood,  but  this  is 
not  apparent  in  the  plant  itself.  Charles  Downing  considered 
it  an  improved  seedling  of  the  Rubus  strigosus  type.  He  says:f 
"The  growth  and  habit  of  throwing  up  numerous  suckers,  the 
strong,  vigorous,  upright  canes,  branching  a  little  toward  the  top, 
nearly  smooth,  with  a  few  short,  scattering  spines,  and  peculiar 
reddish  color  of  the  new  leaves  at  the  end  of  the  new  shoot,  the 
color  and  flavor  of  the  fruit,  all  indicate  strongly  its  native 
origin."  This  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  generally 
prized  early  market  sorts.  Hardy,  vigorous,  productive,  and  a 
thoroughly  good,  all-round  berry. 

Mary. — Raised  from  seed  by  Professor  William  Saunders,  of 
London,  Ont.  Fruit  light  red,  as  large  as  Cuthbert,  with  large 
drupes,  moderately  firm,  quality  fair  to  good.  Plant  productive, 
hardy  and  fairly  vigorous.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill :  290. 

Meredith  Queen. — Discovered  growing  wild  in  the  town  of 
Meredith,  Delaware  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1880,  by  E.  J.  Brownell, 
who  sent  out  plants  for  trial  in  1883.  A  late  variety  of  moderate 
growth.  Fairly  hardy,  and  only  moderately  productive,  much  of 
the  fruit  being  imperfect.  Bearing  canes  dark  brown;  new 
growth  purplish  green,  tips  red;  suckers  freely.  Fruit  medium 
size,  of  pale  orange  or  reddish  salmon  color.  It  is  a  strictly 
native  red  raspberry  except  in  color,  and  is  of  interest  from 
being  a  yellow  representative  of  this  species. 

Michigan  (Michigan  Early).— Introduced  about  1883  by  William 
Parry,  of  New  Jersey.  It  was  generally  supposed  to  have  orig- 

"Country  Gentleman,  1883:  338. 
tMich.  Hort.  Soc.  1884:  252. 


196  BUSH-FRUITS 

inated  in  Michigan,  though  William  Parry,  Jr.,  is  under  the  im- 
pression that  the  first  plants  came  from  Tennessee.  Plant  lack- 
ing in  vigor  and  productiveness.  Fruit  roundish  conical,  rather 
small,  of  inferior  quality.  Moderately  firm,  dark  red.  Appar- 
ently of  no  real  value. 

Miller  (Miller's  Woodland). — A  very  popular  variety  in  the 
Delaware  peninsula.  Origin  same  as  the  Brandywine.  De- 
scribed as  strong,  vigorous,  not  too  high,  adapted  to  bear  very 
large  crops  without  drooping,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  very 
large,  bright  crimson,  which  it  holds  well  in  market;  firm, 
sprightly,  subacid,  of  excellent  quality.  Resembles  Brandywine 
under  favorable  circumstances,  but  ripens  earlier.  Said  to  give 
its  largest  pickings  very  early,  but  its  largest  berries  very  late. 
It  has  not  succeeded  so  well  in  other  sections. 

Miller  Favorite. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Michigan  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1887.— Bull.  Ill:  291. 

Niagara. — A  Canada  variety  which  apparently  has  some  good 
qualities.  Flavor  and  texture  good;  color  dark.  Apparently 
vigorous  and  productive. 

Olaihe  (Stayman's  No.  5). — Originated  by  J.  Stayman,  of 
Leavenworth,  Kans.,  from  seed  of  Reliance.  Canes  rather  slender, 
vigorous,  upright,  dark  red.  Fruit  large,  firm,  juicy,  of  good 
quality  and  color,  ripening  among  the  last;  productive. 

Osceola. — Originated  in  Osceola  county,  in  northwestern  Iowa. 
Said  to  be  extremely  hardy,  but  soft  in  fruit. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  Ill:  297. 

Parry's  Nos.  1  and  2. —  Originated  with  William  Parry,  of 
New  Jersey,  but  not  considered  by  him  worth  naming  and  in- 
troducing. No.  1  is  an  early  variety,  of  rank  growth,  dark  foli- 
age, fairly  productive,  soft,  of  good  flavor.  No.  2  later,  more 
productive,  not  so  rank  a  grower,  large,  firm,  of  distinct  flavor. 

Pearl  (Red  Pearl). —  Origin  unknown.  Cultivated  consider- 
ably about  Philadelphia  at  one  time.  The  plant  is  a  very  short, 
stocky  grower,  seldom  over  three  feet  high.  Spines  numerous, 
long,  slender,  light  colored,  slightly  tinged  with  purple.  Suckers 
very  numerous.  Moderately  productive  and  hardy.  Fruit  me- 
dium, nearly  round,  bright  scarlet,  sweet,  juicy,  moderately  firm, 
with  an  agreeable  flavor. 

Pennsylvanian. — A  variety  mentioned  by  Prince,  in  the  Porno- 
logical  Manual,  as  obtained  from  a  London  nursery  under  the 
name  Rubus  Pennsylvanicus,  but  which  he  had  later  found  to  be 
identical  with  plants  received  from  the  forests  of  Maine. 

Perfection. — A  variety  originated  by  F.  W.  Loudon,  of  Janes- 
ville,  Wisconsin,  and  said  to  be  a  cross  between  the  Cuthbert  and 


AMERICAN   RED    VARIETIES  197 

the  Turner.  Described  as  productive ;  fruit  large,  handsome,  of 
good  color  and  flavor,  juicy,  not  so  firm  as  the  Cuthbert. 

Pomona. — Introduced  by  William  Parry  about  1887.  One  of 
the  most  uniformly  productive  varieties  grown  at  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.  Of  vigorous  growth  and  fine  ap- 
pearance. Fruit  a  pleasing  red,  large  and  firm.  Season  very  long. 

Queen  of  the  Market. — See  Cuthbert. 

Eancocas. — Introduced  by  William  H.  Moon,  of  Morrisville, 
Pa.,  in  1884.  Originated  as  a  seedling  on  the  farm  of  J.  S. 
Hansell,  taking  its  name  from  the  place  of  its  origin,  on  the 
Bancocas  Creek.  An  early  variety  of  weak  or  only  moderate 
growth,  hardy,  and  fairly  productive.  Fruit  of  medium  size, 
firm,  of  good  color,  but  rather  poor  quality.  Yields  the  bulk  of 
its  crop  early  in  the  season. 

Re(e)der. — A  seedling  found  near  Stevensville,  Mich.,  about 
1875.  Described  as  somewhat  lacking  in  vigor.  Canes  slender, 
quite  tender.  Fruit  round,  only  moderately  firm,  of  good  quality. 
Apparently  never  proved  valuable. 

Bed  Queen. — Mentioned  by  William  Parry,  in  1869,  as  no 
longer  popular. — Gar.  Month.  11 :  237. 

Royal  Church. — Originated  on  the  farm  of  Eoyal  Church,  of 
Harrisonville,  Ohio,  near  where  a  lot  of  Herstine  and  Philadel- 
phia varieties  had  been  grown.  Plants  vigorous,  productive,  and 
hardy.  Fruit  very  large,  dark  crimson,  moderately  firm,  of  ex- 
cellent quality.  Rather  too  dark  in  color.  This  may  belong 
with  the  Rubus  neglectus  group. 

Scarlet. — Under  this  name  was  disseminated  a  sort  found 
mixed  with  the  Allen  as  sent  out.  It  was  distributed  by  John 
Crane,  of  Union  county,  N.  Y..  who  simply  stated  the  facts,  not 
claiming  it  to  be  a  new  variety.  Fuller  thinks  it  probable,  from 
the  description,  that  it  was  Allen's  Prolific. 

Scarlet  Gem. — A  seedling  of  the  Crimson  Beauty,  originated 
by  Dr.  J.  Stayman,  of  Leavenworth,  Kans.,  in  1876.  Described 
as  early,  moderately  vigorous,  comparatively  hardy,  of  medium 
productivenes.  Fruit  bright  red,  of  medium  size,  but  deficient 
in  quality  and  firmness.  Like  its  parent,  it  needs  to  be  near 
other  varieties  to  insure  pollination. 

Stayman  No.  2.— Bed,  hardy,  equal  to  Crimson  Beauty. — 
Samuel  Miller,  Missouri  Hort.  Soc.  Bep.  1883:  203. 

Stoever. — A  form  of  the  American  Bed,  found  wild  near  Lake 
Dunmore,  Vermont,  by  Jefferson  F.  Stoever,  who  removed  and 
fruited  it  near  Philadelphia,  in  1859.  Described  as  large,  roundish 
conical,  rich  crimson  color,  and  of  good  flavor,  with  a  tendency 
to  autumn  fruiting.— Hov.  Mag.  1860:  124. 


198  BUSH-FRUITS 

Talcott.—Se-ut  out  for  trial  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale  of  Connecticut, 
in  1883.  Much  like  Turner  except  in  form.  Plant  lacking  in 
vigor;  fruit  small  and  very  early. 

Thompson  Early  Pride.— Sent  out  in  1888  by  the  Cleveland 
Nursery  Co.  Described  as  upright,  vigorous,  hardy  and  fairly 
productive.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  firm,  juicy  and  good. 

Thompson  Early  Prolific. — Also  sent  out  by  the  Cleveland 
Nursery  Co.  A  moderate  grower,  fairly  productive.  Fruit  of  me- 
dium size,  bright  crimson,  quite  firm,  ripening  early. 

Thwack. — Introduced  by  T.  W.  Foster,  of  Louisiana,  Mo.,  as 
obtained  from  T.  S.  Wilson,  of  New  York,  who  claimed  it  to  be  a 
cross  between  Herstine  and  Brandy  wine.  Hardy,  vigorous,  produc- 
tive ;  canes  stout,  brownish  green,  with  few  spines.  Fruit  large, 
ovate -conical,  bright  red,  with  slight  whitish  pubescence.  Flesh 
pale  red,  rather  firm,  moderately  juicy,  mild,  not  rich.  Attained 
prominence  as  a  market  berry,  notwithstanding  its  poor  quality. 

Trusty. — A  variety  of  unknown  origin,  on  trial  in  Canada. 
Said  to  be  of  medium  size,  round,  dark  red,  slightly  downy,  of 
good  quality,  firm,  very  productive,  and  late.  Canes  resembling 
Cuthbert,  but  more  hardy.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  315. 

Turner  (Southern  Thornless,  Bed  Thornless,  Southern  Red, 
Baldwin's  Choice,  Balding's  Choice)  .—Originated  by  Prof.  J.  B. 
Turner,  of  Jacksonville,  111.  A  full  account  of  its  origin  is  given 
in  E.  P.  Eoe's  "  Success  with  Small  Fruits."  It  was  for  a  long 
time  one  of  the  most  popular  varieties,  and  is  still  much  grown. 
Very  hardy,  vigorous;  canes  of  a  golden  reddish  brown  color, 
overspread  with  a  purple  bloom.  Almost  free  from  spines.  Fruit 
large,  bright  crimson,  roundish  conical,  soft,  sweet,  and  of  excel- 
lent flavor.  The  distribution  of  plants  by  a  man  named  Baldwin 
undoubtedly  caused  it  to  receive  the  name  Baldwin's  Choice,  evi- 
dently corrupted  to  Balding's  Choice. 

Virginia  Red. — A  variety  mentioned  by  Prince  in  the  Porno - 
logical  Manual,  published  in  1832. 

Welsh. — A  seedling  raised  by  Isaac  Welsh,  of  Camden  county, 
N.  J.  Described  as  early,  of  medium  size,  bright  red,  firm,  not  of 
high  quality.  Vigorous,  productive,  and  unusually  hardy. 

White -fruited. — A  white-fruited  form  of  Eubus  strigosus  was 
sent  to  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,  by  A.  S. 
Fuller.  The  plant  possesses  all  the  characters  of  Rubus  strigosus, 
and  has  nothing  of  importance  to  distinguish  it  from  that  species. 

Winant. — A  seedling  raised  in  New  Jersey.  Introduced  by 
Frank  Ford  &  Son,  of  Eavenna,  Ohio.  Said  to  resemble  Thwack. 
A  strong,  vigorous,  upright  grower,  perfectly  hardy,  productive. 
Fruit  large,  clear  bright  red,  firm. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  199 

RECOMMENDED  VARIETIES 

A  vote  for  the  most  thoroughly  tried  and  generally 
satisfactory  American  red  raspberries  would  probably 
result  in  the  election  of  Marlboro  for  early  and  Cuth- 
bert  for  late.  To  this  should  be  added  Golden  Queen, 
if  a  yellow  variety  is  wanted.  London  is  younger,  but 
is  pushing  rapidly  into  the  field,  while  Miller  seems 
to  please  on  the  Delaware  peninsula. 

IV.      THE   EUROPEAN   RED   RASPBERRIES 
Eubus  Idceus 

At  the  beginning  of  raspberry  culture  in  the  United 
States  the  European  red  raspberry  had  all  the  advan- 
tage of  age  and  breeding  on  its  side,  but  with  the 
climate  against  it,  it  has  lost  the  race.  This  has  hap- 
pened, too,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  has 
been  no  serious  difficulty  in  growing  it  here.  More 
than  one  hundred  varieties  have  been  introduced,  many 
of  them  having  been  seedlings  produced  in  America, 
but  in  spite  of  that,  few  are  now  known  or  grown  to 
any  extent.  Their  quality  and  appearance  recommends 
them  to  the  amateur's  garden,  and  it  is  chiefly  there 
that  they  are  found.  The  varieties  of  this  class  are 
usually  less  hardy,  slightly  more  stocky  in  growth  of 
cane,  and  continue  to  ripen  their  fruit  through  a  longer 
season.  See  Section  III.  for  a  history  of  this  type. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE   EUROPEAN  BED   TYPE 

All  Summer. — Introduced  by  John  Lewis  Childs,  of  Floral 
Park,  N.  Y.,  as  having  been  purchased  from  Mrs.  A.  A.  Stowe, 


200  BUSH-FRUITS 

of  Hailey,  Idaho,  who  obtained  it  from  California,  though  the 
plants  came  originally  from  Mexico.  Said  to  be  strong,  stocky, 
vigorous  and  prolific,  with  large  rank  foliage,  hardy  in  winter 
and  summer.  Fruit  large,  dark  red,  and  of  excellent  quality. 
Eecommended  for  its  ability  to  endure  extreme  heat. 

Alpine. — Imported  from  the  Mediterranean  with  Cretan  Red 
and  Flesh -colored  by  William  E.  Prince,  who  believed  them 
to  be  closely  related. 

Amazon.— Sent  out  from  Edesville,  Md.,  as  a  new  variety,  but 
thought  by  those  who  received  it  to  be  the  Fontenay. 

4rnold  Orange  (Orange  King) .  —  Originated  with  Charles 
Arnold,  Paris,  Ont.  Canes  strong,  branching,  yellowish  brown, 
almost  smooth,  and  producing  but  few  suckers.  Fruit  large, 
somewhat  shorter  than  Brinckle's  Orange,  of  a  darker  orange 
color,  unsurpassed  for  flavor.  Said  to  be  a  yellow-cap  crossed 
with  Rubus  Idceus. 

Arnold  Red. — Origin  same  as  the  previous;  the  best  known 
of  Mr.  Arnold's  seedlings.  Hardy,  vigorous,  canes  dark  purple, 
somewhat  drooping.  Spines  slightly  purple,  stout,  quite  nu- 
merous. Fruit  large,  red,  about  the  size  and  shape  of  Phila- 
delphia, but  of  superior  flavor.  Said  to  bear  a  good  crop  both  in 
July  and  in  September.  Also  said  to  be  a  cross  between  the 
yellow-cap,  Rubus  occidentalis,  and  Rubus  Idceus. 

Arnold  Yellow  (Yellow  Canada). — Of  the  same  origin  and  pa- 
rentage as  the  two  preceding.  Fruit  nearly  white,  large,  and  fine 
flavored  but  not  equal  to  Brinckle's  Orange.  Plant  of  a  peculiar 
albino  appearance,  quite  vigorous,  productive  and  hardy.  Suckers 
freely.  Bears  early  and  again  sparingly  in  autumn.— Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  258. 

Baker.— A  seedling  of  Merveille  des  Quatre  Saisons.  Kaised 
by  Mr.  Parnell,  of  Cincinnati. 

Barnet  (Cornwall's  Prolific,  Cornwall's  Seedling,  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  Large  Bed,  Barnet  Antwerp,  Barnet  Cane). — An  old  Eng- 
lish variety,  said  by  Prince  to  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
Red  Antwerp,  but  distinguished  from  it  by  its  branching  canes 
and  long,  slender,  reddish  prickles.  Said  to  have  been  raised 
from  seed  by  a  person  named  Cornwall,  at  Barnet,  Herefordshire. 

Baumforth  (Baumforth's  Seedling).- Originated  in  England 
from  seed  of  the  Northumberland  Fillbasket.  Said  to  be  stronger, 
more  productive,  larger,  and  a  richer  crimson  than  its  parent. 

Biggar  Seedling  .—'Raised  by  C.  A.  Biggar,  of  Drummond- 
ville,  Ont.,  from  an  unknown  European  variety.  Largely  used  as 
a  parent  variety  by  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont., 
in  producing  his  hybrid  varieties. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  201 

Black  (English  Black).— Mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  hybrid 
from  England.  An  old  variety. 

Brentford  Cane.—  Mentioned  by  Prince  and  spoken  of  toy  Fuller 
as  an  old  English  variety  of  little  or  no  value.  Placed  among  the 
inferior  varieties  in  the  nurserymen's  catalogues  about  1825. 

Brentford  Red. — Spoken  of  by  Prince  in  the  Pomological 
Manual  as  a  variety  of  excellent  quality  and  high  flavor;  produc- 
tive, and  continuing  a  long  time  in  bearing,  often  producing  a 
second  crop  in  August. 

Brentford  White. — Offered  by  Prince  &  Mills,  Flushing,  N.  Y., 
in  1822.  Doubtless  an  English  variety,  judging  from  its  name. 

Bromley  Hill. — "An  old  red,  English  variety  of  fair  quality, 
but  not  productive."— Fuller. 

Burlington  (Prosser). — Originated  by  Benjamin  Prosser,  of 
Burlington,  N.  J.  Downing  states  that  there  was  some  confusion 
over  this  variety,  two  or  three  having  been  sent  out  under  the 
name.  The  one  they  had  he  describes  as  "moderately  vigorous 
and  productive.  Spines  greenish  white  with  a  brown  tinge,  slen- 
der and  more  numerous  than  any  kind  we  have  ever  seen.  Fruit 
large,  roundish  conical.  Grains  rather  small,  compact,  scarlet. 
Flesh  quite  firm,  juicy,  sweet,  good." 

Carter  Prolific.— An  English  variety,  with  strong  canes  and 
purplish  spines.  Fruit  large,  roundish  obtuse  conical,  deep 
scarlet,  with  slight  bloom.  Firm,  moderately  juicy,  sweet  and 
pleasant.— Downing. 

Champlain. — A  chance  seedling  found  in  the  garden  of  Mr. 
Macomber,  of  Grand  Isle  county,  Vt.  Believed  to  be  from  seed 
of  White  Antwerp,  which  it  much  resembles  in  the  character  of 
its  canes.  Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry  in  1892.  Described 
as  vigorous  and  productive,  with  a  tendency  for  the  bark  to  split 
and  curl.  Thorns  numerous  and  small.  Foliage  rich  green, 
much  wrinkled.  Fruit  large,  lighter  in  color  and  more  abun- 
dant than  the  White  Antwerp,  with  seeds  smaller,  while  the 
drupes  are  fully  as  large.  Juicy,  melting,  and  of  high  flavor. 
Too  soft  for  market,  but  a  good  family  variety. 

Charles  the  Bold. — Mentioned  as  one  of  Arnold's  hybrids.— 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  263. 

Christine. — A  very  late  red  variety  of  indifferent  flavor,  sent 
out  by  E.  P.  Eoe. 

Clarke.—  Raised  by  E.  E.  Clarke,  New  Haven,  Conn.  De- 
scribed as  strong,  vigorous  and  upright.  Spines  purplish,  rather 
long  and  stiff.  Fruit  large,  conical,  regular.  Grains  large,  quite 
hairy,  bright  crimson.  Flesh  rather  soft,  juicy,  sweet  and  ex- 
cellent. Apparently  one  of  the  best  adapted  to  our  climate  of 


202  BUSR-FRUITS 

the  foreign  varieties.  Said  to  be  capable  of  enduring  more  heat 
and  cold  than  most  varieties.  Found  to  be  productive  at  the 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station*. 

Cline. — A  chance  seedling  sent  out  for  trial  by  G.  W.  Cline, 
Winona,  Ont.,  in  1893.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  red,  firm,  sweet, 
of  poor  quality;  inferior  to  Turner,  but  very  early. 

Colonel  Wilder. — A  seedling  raised  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Brinckle,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  from  seed  of  the  Fastolf,  and  named  in  honor 
of  Marshall  P.  Wilder.  Foliage  much  crumpled,  spines  white. 
Fruit  large,  roundish,  very  delicate  yellowish  white  or  cream 
color,  semi-transparent.  One  of  the  finest  flavored  raspberries, 
and  very  productive.  Flesh  soft. 

Cope  (Vice -President  Cope). — Originated  with  Dr.  Brinckle,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Caleb  Cope,  vice-president  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for  Pennsylvania  in  1852.  Thomas  calls  it 
a  late  sub-variety  of  the  Red  Antwerp. 

Cornish. — An  English  variety  which  Fuller  speaks  of  as  old 
and  discarded  at  the  time  his  book  was  written. 

Cox  Honey. — An  old  English  white  variety. 

Cretan  Bed. —  Imported  from  the  Mediterranean  by  Prince, 
who  says  it  resembles  the  Antwerp  class  in  foliage,  but  with 
fewer  spines.  Thomas  describes  it  as  rather  late,  productive; 
canes  upright,  gray,  nearly  smooth;  leaves  light  colored;  fruit 
medium,  roundish  conical,  purplish  red,  subacid,,  good. 

Crystal  White. — A  seedling  originated  by  A.  J.  Cay  wood,  of 
Marlboro,  N.  Y.  Canes  vigorous;  foliage  deep  green.  Fruit 
light  lemon  color,  which  easily  stains,  and  becomes  worthless  for 
market;  moderately  firm,  of  good  quality  and  flavor.  Possibly 
belongs  to  the  Eubus  neglectus  class. 

Gushing. — Raised  by  Dr.  BrincklS,  of  Philadelphia,  and  named 
in  honor  of  J.  P.  Gushing,  of  Watertown,  Mass.  Described  as 
large,  roundish  conical,  light  crimson,  regular  in  form,  juicy, 
sprightly,  good.  Grains  small  and  compact.  Spines  brownish 
purple,  stiff  and  rather  numerous.  Dr.  Brinckle  said  that  in 
favorable  seasons  it  would  produce  an  autumn  crop  of  fine  berries. 

Delaware. — Said  to  be  an  American  seedling  of  the  Hornet.  A 
hardy,  red  variety,  reasonably  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit  of 
medium  size,  rather  soft,  but  sweet  and  delicate. 

Diadem — Produced  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Ontario,  by  crossing 
the  American  White -cap  with  Franconia,  a  seedling  of  this  cross 
with  White  Four- seasons,  and  the  offspring  of  this  by  Hornet, 
Imperial,  and  Fontenay,  the  Diadem  being  one  of  the  resulting 
seedlings.  Described  as  fairly  vigorous,  hardy,  large,  red  or 
pinkish,  of  good  quality.  Seems  to  have  been  little  grown. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  203 

Double-Bearing  Bed  (Perpetual -Bearing,  Twice -Bearing,  Late 
Liberian,  Late  Cane,  etc.). — Mentioned  by  Prince  and  by  Bridge- 
man.  Downing  says,  it  was  formerly  esteemed  for  its  autumn 
bearing  habit,  but  was  then  superseded  by  better  kinds. 

Downing. — A  seedling  of  the  Orange,  by  Charles  Downing. 

Duhring. — A  seedling  of  Hornet  originated  by  Henry  Duhring,  of 
Belmont,  near  Philadelphia.  Little  known  outside  of  that  vicinity. 

Dyack  Seedling. — Imported  by  Robert  Buist,  of  Philadelphia, 
about  1840,  and  known  only  as  a  parent  of  Brinckle"'s  Orange. — 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  271. 

Early  Prolific. — An  old  English  variety  of  poor  flavor. — Fuller. 

Emily. — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings  which  proved  unworthy 
of  attention. 

Empire — A  seedling  of  Biggar  raised  by  Prof.  William  Saunders, 
of  London,  Out.  Described  as  early,  productive,  fairly  vigorous. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  conical,  bright  red,  firm  and  of  good 
quality. 

English  Cane  (Twice-Bearing). — For  sale  by  Prince  &  Mills, 
of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1822.  Perhaps  the  same  as  Double -bearing 
or  some  of  the  other  English  varieties. 

English  Giant. — Imported  from  Denmark,  by  W.  D.  Barnes  & 
Son,  Middlehope,  N.  Y.  On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1894. 

English  Globe.— A  variety  mentioned  by  Downing. 

English  White  (Old  English  Yellow[?]).— For  sale  by  Prince 
&  Mills,  of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1822  at  8  cents  each.  The 
White  Antwerp  sold  at  25  cents  each,  and  the  American  White  at 
12%  cents  each,  so  this  could  hardly  have  been  either  of  those. 

Everbearing  Bed. — Mentioned  by  William  Parry  in  1869  as  no 
longer  popular.  Also  recorded  as  a  failure  in  Canada. 

Fastolf  (Filby) . — One  of  the  best  English  varieties,  which  de- 
rived its  name  from  having  originated  near  the  ruins  of  an  old 
castle  of  that  name  in  Great  Yarmouth.  First  advertised  by  Yuell 
&  Co.,  in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle  in  1843.  Eipens  about  ten  days 
earlier  than  Franconia.  Figured  in  Hovey's  Magazine  1846:  299. 
Crozier*  cites  a  reference  which  seems  to  indicate  a  much  earlier 
origin. 

Flesh-Colored  (Frambosier  Couleur  de  Chair). — Said  to  have 
been  obtained  by  William  R.  Prince  from  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  Cretan  Eed,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

Fontenay  (Belle   de  Fontenay,  Belle   d'Orleans,  Amazon). — A 


*Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  274. 


204  BUSH-FRUITS 

French  variety  with  stocky,  vigorous,  and  somewhat  branching 
canes,  suckering  abundantly,  especially  when  young.  Fruit  large, 
roundish  conical,  purplish  red,  moderately  firm,  with  a  rich, 
sprightly  flavor.  One  of  the  hardiest  and  most  reliable  European 
varieties.  Crozier  spells  this  name  Fontenoy  - 

Four -Seasons  Red  (Merveille  de  Quatre  Saisons,  October 
Red). — A  French  variety  having  the  autumn -bearing  habit  espe- 
cially developed.  Thought  by  many  American  cultivators  to  be 
the  same  as  Fontenay. 

Four-Seasons  Yellow  (White  Four -Seasons,  October  Yellow) . — 
Imported  from  France  in  1863  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Paris,  Ont. 
Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  preceding,  and  similar  to  it  in  all  re- 
spects except  color. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  275. 

Franconia  (Abel,  Naomi  [?]). — Received  from  Messrs.  Vil- 
morin,  of  Paris,  many  years  ago  by  Samuel  G.  Perkins.  Said  to 
have  been  little  known  in  European  catalogues  except  as  returned 
from  this  country.  It  was  one  of  the  comparatively  well  known 
foreign  varieties  on  this  side  of  the  water. 

French  (Vice-President  French). — Raised  by  Dr.  Brinckle, 
from  Fastolf  crossed  with  Yellow  Antwerp,  and  named  in  honor 
of  B.  U.  French,  vice-president  of  the  Massachusetts  Horti- 
cultural Society.  Described  by  the  originator*  as  follows:  "A 
very  late  variety,  which  throws  up  very  few  suckers,  and  never 
fruits  on  these  until  the  succeeding  year.  It  is  the  latest  and 
most  hardy  of  all  my  seedling  raspberries.  It  was  the  result 
of  a  cross  between  Fastolf  and  Yellow  Antwerp.  The  seed  pro- 
duced from  this  cross  was  planted,  and  some  twenty  or  more  of 
them  vegetated.  Being  desirous  of  creating  new  varieties  with  a 
constitution  sufficiently  hardy  to  adapt  them  to  the  exigencies  of 
our  climate,  I  subjected  them  to  such  severe  treatment  as  to  kill 
all  of  them  but  one.  This  one  bore  the  hard  usage  well.  The 
berry  of  the  French  is  large,  round,  and  of  a  deep  crimson  color." 

French  Everbearing. — Said  to  have  been  recently  imported  from 
France  by  California  nurserymen,  where  it  is  becoming  popular. 

Fulton. — A  seedling  of  the  French  raised  by  Dr.  Brinckle". 
Named  in  honor  of  James  D.  Fulton,  of  Pennsylvania. 

General  Patterson. — A  seedling  of  the  Colonel  Wilder  raised  by 
Dr.  Brinckle",  and  named  in  honor  of  General  Patterson,  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Genesee.—A.  red  variety  sent  out  by  Z.  H.  Harris,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  Described  as  a  moderate  grower.  Foliage  distinct,  large 

*Gar.  Month.  2:  13& 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  205 

and  wrinkled.     Fruit  of  large  size,  good  color  and  pleasant  flavor, 
but  soft,  and  dropping  from  the  plant  as  soon  as  fully  ripe. 

Golden  Prague. — Imported  from  Denmark  by  W.  D.  Barnes  & 
Son,  of  Middlehope,  N.  Y.  On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1894.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  277. 

Grape  (Mason's  Seedling  Grape). — Raised  from  seed  by  Mr. 
Mason,  a  gardener,  at  Charleston,  Mass.  Said  to  have  been  pro- 
duced by  crossing  the  Scarlet  Rockingham  and  Red  Antwerp, 
and  to  resemble  the  Scarlet  Antwerp  in  fruit  and  plant,  but  to  be  a 
better  bearer,  with  racemes  or  bunches  of  fruits  like  grapes, 
whence  its  name.  This  name  seems  to  have  appeared  in  various 
places.  Quite  likely  it  may  have  been  applied  to  different  plants 
at  different  times. 

Heebner. — Described  by  John  Craig,  of  Ottawa,  Canada,  as  a 
large  red  berry  of  the  Clarke  and  Hornet  type.  Of  good  quality, 
but  not  a  good  shipper.  Not  hardy  in  Ottawa  without  winter 
protection. 

Henrietta.— A  seedling  which  sprung  up  in  Connecticut.  It 
was  introduced  by  G.  H.  &  J.  H.  Hale,  who  described  it  as  per- 
fectly hardy,  remaining  green  to  the  tips  with  a  temperature  of 
twenty-four  degrees  below  zero.  Also  enduring  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer well.  A  vigorous  grower,  suckering  freely.  Fruit  large,  of 
high  color  and  firm.  Said  to  be  very  similar  to  Fontenay. 

Hornet. — A  French  variety  raised  by  M.  Souchet,  of  Bagnolet, 
near  Paris.  Introduced  here  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet,  of  Carpen- 
ter's Landing,  N.  J.,  about  1859.  Figured  in  the  Gardeners' 
Monthly  1:  122. 

Hudson  River  Antwerp  (New  Red  Antwerp,  North  River  Ant- 
werp) . — Said  to  have  been  obtained  from  England  by  Mr.  Bridge, 
of  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  E.  P.  Roe,  in  "Success  with  Small 
Fruits,"  gives  a  most  interesting  account  of  the  rise  and  fall  of 
this  variety  and  the  extent  which  its  cultivation  reached  along  the 
Hudson  in  its  most  successful  days. 

Huntsman  Giant. — A  seedling  of  the  Franconia  raised  by 
F.  W.  Huntsman,  of  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  who  grew  many  seedlings, 
hoping  to  gain  a  hardy  variety  equal  to  the  more  tender  kinds. 
This  was  not  claimed  to  be  perfectly  hardy,  but  to  be  an  advance 
in  this  direction,  while  retaining  the  good  quality  of  its  parent. 

Imperial. — A  large  French  variety  introduced  by  Aubrey  & 
Souchet,  of  Carpenter's  Landing,  N.  J. 

Imperial  White. — A  variety  catalogued  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry, 
in  I860.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  385. 

Gillard's  Seedling. — An  English  sort  of  good  quality. — Fuller. 


206  B  USH-FR  (TITS 

Jouet.—A  French  variety  introduced  here  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet, 
of  Carpenter's  Landing,  N.  J. 

King  (Thompson's  King). — Sent  out  by  the  Cleveland  Nursery 
Co.,  of  Bio  Vista,  Va.,  in  1892.  Described  by  H.  E.  Van  De- 
man  as  medium  in  size,  round,  light  crimson,  drupes  large, 
few,  suture  plainly  marked,  moderately  firm,  juicy,  subacid  and 
good.  Professor  Beach  says*  that  it  shows  evidence  of  Idaeus 
parentage. 

Knevett  Giant. — Imported  from  England  by  Marshall  P. 
Wilder  in  1843,  having  been  received  as  a  present  from  Messrs. 
Chandler  &  Co.,  of  Vauxhall,  who  stated  that  the  ones  they  gave 
to  Mr.  Wilder  were  all  they  had  ever  had.  They  were  under  the 
impression  that  these  were  brought  in  by  some  person  in  that 
vicinity.  The  variety  became  quite  popular  in  this  country. 

Lady  Ann. — A  seedling  of  Biggar  Seedling,  produced  by  Pro- 
fessor William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.,  and  now  on  trial  in 
Canada.  Said  to  be  moderately  vigorous,  large,  firm,  and  of 
good  quality.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  287. 

Large -fruited  Monthly  (Bivers's  Large-fruited  Monthly,  Bivers's 
New  Monthly) . — Said  to  have  been  imported  from  the  continent 
to  England  by  Thomas  Bivers,  in  1847,  and  brought  to  this 
country  later.  Apparently  it  never  proved  valuable  here. 

Longworth. — One  of  Dr.  BrincklS's  Seedlings,  which  Fuller 
describes  as  large,  round,  deep  crimson. 

Lord  Beaconsfield. — Mentioned  as  an  English  variety  on  trial  at 
the  Experimental  Farm  at  Agassiz,  B.  C. 

Lost  Rubies. — A  variety  said  to  have  been  found  growing  in 
a  bed  of  Naomi  by  A.  M.  Purdy,  and  sent  to  Charles  A. 
Green,  of  Bochester,  N.  Y.,  who  introduced  it.  Begarded  by 
many  as  identical  with  Naomi.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not, 
the  name  "Lost  Bubies"  was  very  appropriate,  for  its  fruit 
proved  to  be  conspicuously  absent,  most  of  it  being  imperfect. 

Magnum  Bonum. — Introduced  from  England  about  1840.  Said 
to  be  similar  to,  if  not  the  same  as,  Yellow  Antwerp. 

Mrs.  Ingersoll. — One  of  Dr.  Brinckle's  seedlings.  Large,  yel- 
low, and  of  fair  quality. 

Mrs.  Wilder. — A  seedling  of  the  Colonel  Wilder,  similar  in 
color.  Named  by  Dr.  Brinckle". 

Muriel. — A  seedling  raised  from  Biggar  Seedling  by  Professor 
Saunders.  Said  to  be  moderately  vigorous,  large,  dark  red, 
pointed,  rather  soft,  of  best  quality,  and  ripening  early. 

*Geneva  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  91. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  207 

Naomi. — Said  to  have  been  produced  from  seed  sown  by  Mrs. 
Governor  Wood,  of  Rockport,  Ohio,  about  1850.  Introduced  by 
F.  R.  Elliott.  The  question  of  the  identity  of  this  variety  with 
the  Franconia  was  investigated  by  a  committee  of  the  Ohio  State 
Horticultural  Society  in  1868.  The  fact  was  developed  that  the 
stock  sent  out  from  Mrs.  Wood's  place  was  very  badly  mixed. 
She  grew  seedlings  from  the  Red  Antwerp  and  Franconia,  and 
from  the  mixture  distributed  plants.  The  sort  which  proved  the 
best,  and  thus  came  to  survive  as  the  true  Naomi,  was  doubtless 
the  Franconia  itself,  or  a  seedling  of  it,  which,  as  may  happen 
with  the  offspring  of  well  established  varieties,  was  so  nearly 
like  the  parent  as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  it. 

Narragansett. — A  seedling  of  Brinckl6's  Orange  raised  by 
John  F.  Jolls,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  reported  to  be  large 
and  productive.  Fruit  conical,  scarlet,  of  fine  flavor. 

New  Everbearing. — Noticed  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Cincin- 
nati Horticultural  Society  for  1861. 

Northumberland  Fillbasket. — An  English  variety  introduced 
about  1855. 

Norwalk. — Introduced  in  1879,  by  Mallory  &  Downs,  of  South 
Norwalk,  Conn.  Said  to  be  bright  red,  fine  flavored,  and  not 
crumbly.  A  superior  variety  for  market  and  canning.  Thought 
by  Lovett  to  be  the  same  as  Naomi  and  Franconia. 

Nottingham  Scarlet. — An  old  English  variety,  introduced  be- 
fore 1850  by  Marshall  P.  Wilder. 

Orange  (Brinckle's  Orange). —  This  noted  variety  originated 
with  Dr.  W.  D.  BrincklS,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1845.  It  has  long 
stood  as  representing  the  ideal  quality  to  be  sought  for  in  the 
raspberry.  Roe  speaks  of  it  as  a  hybrid  between  Eubus  Idceus 
and  our  native  species.  It  was  raised  from  the  seed  of  Dyack 
Seedling,  an  English  variety  of  deep  crimson  color,  but  what  the 
staminate  parent  was  does  not  now  appear.  According  to  Dr. 
Brinckle",  it  reproduces  itself  generally  from  seed.  It  is  described 
by  Roe*  as  follows  :  "  It  is  essentially  an  Antwerp  in  character, 
and  yet  it  is  more  vigorous,  and  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of 
country  than  the  Antwerp.  The  berry  is  of  a  beautiful  buff  color, 
and  its  delicious  flavor  is  the  accepted  standard  of  excellence. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  known  that  it  will  not  thrive  under  hot 
suns  or  upon  light  land.  It  can  be  raised  south  of  New  York 
only  in  cool,  moist  soils  and  in  shady  locations  ,•  but  in  the  north, 
where  the  conditions  of  growth  are  favorable,  it  produces  strong, 
branching  canes,  covered  with  white  spines,  and  is  exceedingly 


*  Success  with  Small  Fruits. 


208  BUSH-FRUITS 

productive  of  large,  light  colored  berries  that  melt  on  the  tongue. 
It  always  requires  winter  protection." 

Palluau. — A  French  variety.  Described  by  Downing  as  strong, 
vigorous  and  upright,  bearing  large,  conical  fruit,  a  little  obtuse ; 
bright,  light  crimson. 

Papier. — An  old  French  variety.  Known  also  as  Le  Noire  or 
Tue-Homme.  First  introduced  about  1820  at  Bagnolet,  near  Paris, 
the  chief  seat  of  raspberry  culture  for  the  Paris  market,  whence 
many  of  the  foreign  sorts  have  been  obtained.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  soon  superseded  by  other  sorts  because  of  its  short  fruit 
stalk,  raspberries  there  being  gathered  with  the  stems  attached. 
Introduced  into  the  United  States  by  Aubrey  &  Souchet. 

Parnell. —  Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Merveille  des  Quatre 
Saisons,  raised  by  Mr.  Parnell,  of  Cincinnati.*  Reported  to  stand 
the  winter  well,  but  to  be  easily  injured  by  summer  sun.  Vig- 
orous, productive,  medium  to  large  sized,  dull  red,  with  slight 
bloom,  of  fair  quality. 

Patrician. — Said  to  have  been  applied  by  E.  P.  Roe  as  a  tem- 
porary name  to  a  variety  imported  from  France  by  Mr.  Downing, 
the  name  of  which  had  been  lost.  It  was  said  to  be  vigorous  and 
productive,  with  fruit  larger  than  Cuthbert,  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Pilate.— A.  French  variety,  introduced  into  the  United  States  by 
Aubrey  &  Souchet,  of  New  Jersey. 

Pride  of  Kent.—  Originated  by  Mr.  Fallstaff,  of  Kent,  England. 
Imported  about  1887  by  Henry  King,  of  Jefferson,  Colo.,  and 
introduced  to  public  notice  in  1892  by  R.  S.  Edwards,  of  High- 
land, Colo.  A  typical  Ideeus  variety.  Fruit  of  fair  size,  color 
and  flavor,  but  showing  little  evidence  of  productiveness. 

Pride  of  the  Hudson.— A.  chance  seedling,  which  originated  in 
the  garden  of  T.  H.  Roe,  of  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  about  1872,  and 
gave  most  unusual  promise.  It  was  propagated  and  introduced 
by  E.  P.  Roe,  but  in  spite  of  the  glowing  indications  of  its 
youth,  it  proved  a  failure  when  grown  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Though  apparently  resisting  cold  without  injury,  it  suffered  under 
the  summer  sun,  and  soon  passed  out  of  favor.  The  account  of 
its  origin  and  subsequent  downfall,  as  given  by  Roe  in  "  Success 
with  Small  Fruits,"  well  illustrates  the  fickleness  which  these 
children  of  the  garden  may  sometimes  show.  It  was  described  as 
strong,  vigorous,  with  large  corrugated  leaves,  very  productive, 
of  excellent  quality,  scarlet- crimson,  but  too  soft  for  market. 

Prince  of  Wales  (Cutbush's  Prince  of  Wales).— An  English 
variety,  mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  strong,  upright  bush,  with 
purple  spines  and  large,  conical  crimson  fruit. 

*Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1869:  32. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE     VARIETIES  209 

Princess  A  lice.—  Fuller  speaks  of  this  as  a  new  English  variety, 
raised  by  Cutbush  &  Son,  of  Highgate,  England. 

Prince    Globose. — Raised   by  William  R.  Prince,  of   Flushing, 
L.  I.     Described  as  strong,  upright,  with  long,  stout  and  numer 
ous  spines,  and  large,  dull  red  fruit,  with  a  deep  bloom.     Flesh 
coarse,  rather  dry,  and  crumbling. 

Prolific  Red. — Described  by  Prince  in  1832  as  more  dwarf  than 
most  others.  Canes  slender,  with  small,  numerous  spines.  Fruit 
large,  of  good  quality,  and  an  autumn  bearer. 

Bed  Antwerp  (Old  Red  Antwerp,  Knevett's  Antwerp,  True  Red 
Antwerp,  Rowland's  Red  Antwerp,  Frambosier  £  Gros  Fruit,  Bur- 
ley). — One  of  the  oldest  European  varieties,  probably  having  been 
in  cultivation  more  than  a  century.  It  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  the  city  of  Antwerp,  in  Belgium,  though  the 
plant  itself  is  said  to  have  come  from  the  Island  of  Malta.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  of  the  European  sorts,  and  is  still  grown,  even  for 
market,  in  the  United  States.  Described  as  having  strong,  long, 
yellowish  green  canes,  slightly  glaucous,  tinged  with  purple,  cov- 
ered with  dark  brown  bristles.  Bearing  wood  vigorous  and  nearly 
smooth.  Leaves  large,  slightly  rugose,  dark  green.  Fruit  large, 
conical,  dark  red,  rich  and  sweet.  Many  other  varieties  have  re- 
ceived this  name  at  times.  It  is  figured  in  the  Report  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1866. 

Eed  Cane. — A  favorite  market  variety  at  one  time  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hartford,  Conn.  Introduced  there  without  name,  and 
was  probably  some  well-known  variety  like  the  Hudson  River 
Antwerp,  or  true  Red  Antwerp.— Mich.  Ex.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  303. 

Red  Sweet. — Imported  from  Denmark  by  W.  D.  Barnes  &  Son, 
of  Middlehope,  N.  Y.  On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Ex.  Sta. 
in  1884.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  304. 

Rivers  Orange  (Large  Orange,  Rivers's  Yellow). — Raised  by 
Thomas  Rivers,  of  England.  Described  as  strong,  branching, 
with  stout,  greenish  spines,  not  numerous.  Fruit  large,  deep  or 
pale  reddish  orange. 

Russell  Eed.— Raised  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Russell,  of  Hartford, 
Conn.,  from  seed  of  the  White  Antwerp,  grown  near  Red  Cane. 
Bees  were  kept  in  the  garden,  and  hence  it  was  thought  to  be  a 
cross  between  these  two  varieties.  It  was  first  exhibited  before 
the  Hartford  County  Horticultural  Society,  July  14,  1854.  The 
account  of  this,  given  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1858,  p.  420,  speaks 
of  this  Red  Cane  as  "doubtless  the  American  Red  of  the  books." 

Semper  Fidelis. — An  English  variety,  mentioned  in  Hovey's 
Magazine  as  new  in  1863. 

Sharpe. — A  seedling  of   unknown  parentage,  produced  by  Prof. 


210  BUSH-FRUITS 

William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Described  as  vigorous,  fairly 
hardy.  Fruit  large,  bright  red,  soft,  good  quality,  ripening  early; 
similar  to  Heebner.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  308. 

Silver  Queen. — A  yellow  variety,  sent  out  for  trial  in  1885  by 
Robert  Johnston,  of  Shortsville,  N.  Y.,  who  obtained  it  from  L. 
M.  Macomber,  of  Vermont,  under  the  name  "Silver  Skin."  It 
proved  of  so  little  value  that  it  never  came  into  cultivation. 

Sir  John. — A  seedling  of  Biggar's  Seedling,  produced  by  Pro- 
fessor William  Saunders,  of  Ontario.  On  trial  in  Canada.  De- 
scribed as  large,  roundish  conical,  of  good  quality,  but  soft,  ripen- 
ing early.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill :  309. 

Souchetti  (White  Transparent). —  Raised  by  Messrs.  Souchet 
near  Paris,  and  introduced  in  the  United  States  by  Aubrey  & 
Souchet,  Mr.  Souchet  of  this  firm  being  a  son  of  the  originator  in 
France.  Described  as  long,  conical,  medium  to  large.  Fruit  of  a 
rich  cream  color,  overspread  with  white  bloom. 

Spring  Grove. — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  an  old  foreign  variety, 
very  prolific,  but  of  poor  flavor. 

Sucre  de  Mete. — A  white,  foreign  variety  introduced  by  L.  Ritz, 
of  Ohio,  in  1869.  Said  to  be  productive  and  to  bear  autumn  crops, 
the  fruit  being  of  fine  quality.— Ohio  Hort.  Soe.  Rept.  1869:  32. 

Superb. — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  a  poor-flavored,  old,  foreign 
sort.  Color  red.  See  also  Superb  under  Purple -cane  Raspberries. 

Superb  d'Angleterre. — Also  mentioned  by  Fuller.  Perhaps  the 
same  as  the  preceding. 

Superlative. — Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  in  1892.  Described  as  hardy,  with  stout  canes. 
Fruit  large,  conical,  handsome  dull  red,  of  very  fine  flavor.  Promis- 
ing to  be  an  improvement  over  other  foreign  varieties,  and  pre- 
eminently a  dessert  variety.  Apparently  like  all  others,  however, 
suffering  from  its  foreign  parentage. 

Surpasse  Merveille. — A  French  variety  raised  by  Simon  Louis. 
A  seedling  of  the  Merveille  de  Quatre  Saisons.  Announced  in 
French  catalogues  in  1862. 

Surprise. — A  chance  seedling  of  the  Franconia,  which  origi- 
nated in  Montgomery  county,  N.  Y.  Said  to  resemble  Franconia 
in  flavor,  and  to  be  firm  enough  to  carry  well. — Country  Gentle- 
man 1881:  473.  See  also  Surprise,  under  Purple-cane  raspberries. 

Surprise  d'Automme. — A  white  variety  of  Rubus  Idceus,  intro- 
duced by  L.  Ritz,  of  Ohio,  about  1869.  Claimed  to  be  productive, 
of  very  delicate  flavor,  and  to  bear  autumn  crops, — Ohio  Hort, 
Soc.  Rept.  1869:  32. 

Sweet  Yellow  Antwerp. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  an  old  Eng- 
lish variety,  sweet,  but  unprofitable. 


EUROPEAN-TYPE    VARIETIES  211 


about  1885  on  the  farm  of  J.  W.  Talbot, 
of  Norwood,  Mass.,  who  had  been  growing  Herstine  and  Fon- 
tenay.  Described  as  of  medium  size,  with  large  grains,  soft, 
juicy,  mildly  acid.  Canes  strong  and  vigorous. 

Taylor  Paragon.  —  Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  an  old,  discarded 
European  variety  of  poor  flavor. 

Thunderer.  —  Mentioned  by  Thomas  as  an  English  variety  re- 
sembling Franconia. 

Turkish  Turban.—  Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1842:  368. 

Vermont.  —  A  seedling  of  the  Champlain.  Originated  by  L.  M. 
Macomber,  of  North  Ferrisburgh,  Vermont.  Said  to  be  vigorous, 
hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  of  beautiful  pale  yellow  color,  dusted 
with  a  white  down;  large,  soft,  juicy,  of  best  quality. 

Victoria  (Rogers'  Victoria).  —  Imported  by  William  R.  Prince. 
Described  as  a  variety  of  rather  dwarf  habit,  bearing  very  large 
and  dark  red  fruit.  Fuller  gives  this  name  as  a  synonym  of  Fon- 
tenay.  According  to  Crozier,*  this  is  referred  to  by  Maynard,  of 
Massachusetts,  under  the  name  Victor.  He  also  speaks  of  Cornell's 
Victoria  and  Steel's  Victoria  as  two  other  English  varieties  not 
known  in  the  United  States. 

Walker.  —  One  of  Dr.  Brinckle"'s  seedlings.  Described  as  large, 
round,  deep  crimson,  soft,  juicy,  of  sprightly  flavor,  and  good. 
Canes  strong,  with  a  few  stiff,  purple  spines.  Very  productive. 
Probably  named  in  honor  of  Samuel  Walker,  of  Boston. 

Williams  Preserving.  —  "An  old  English  variety  quoted  from 
Johnson,  in  Gardener's  'Farmer's  Dictionary,'  N.  Y.,  in  1846."  — 
Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  318. 

Wilmot  Early  Red.  —  Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  an  old  English 
variety  of  small  size  and  poor  quality. 

Woodward.  —  One  of  Dr.  Brinckle"'s  seedlings.  Small,  round, 
crimson.  Very  early,  with  red  spines. 

Woodward  Bed  Globe.  —  Fuller  speaks  of  this  as  an  old  Eng- 
lish variety  cultivated  in  England  about  forty  years  previous.  It 
is  also  mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine  of  Horticulture  1843,  p.  332. 

Yellow  Antwerp  (White  Antwerp,  Double  -bearing  Yellow.)  — 
Described  as  nearly  as  large  as  the  Red  Antwerp,  of  the  same 
shape.  Flesh  yellow,  very  tender,  rich,  and  very  sweet.  Canes 
yellow,  productive.  A  variety  long  known. 

Yellow  Chili  (Chili  Monthly).  —  A  French  variety  mentioned  by 
Fuller  as  having  little  value,  being  inferior  to  several  others  of 
the  same  color. 

*Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill;   317. 


212  B  USH-FR  UIT8 


RECOMMENDED    VARIETIES 

None  of  the  English  varieties  can  be  recommended, 
except  to  the  amateur  who  may  wish  to  try  them  for 
the  home  garden,  and  he  may  as  well  be  left  to  make 
his  own  selections. 

V.     UNCLASSIFIED    RASPBEEEIES 

I  have  not  been  able  to  refer  to  their  respective 
classes  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  varieties  men- 
tioned in  the  following  list.  Most  of  them  are  little 
known,  many  have  passed  out  of  cultivation,  others 
may  be  only  synonyms  for  better -known  names,  and 
a  few  are  new. 

Allen. — See  False  Red  Antwerp. 

Allen  Eed  Prolific. — Same  origin  as  the  Allen.  Perhaps  also 
included  under  the  False  Eed  Antwerp. 

Barter. — 'Reported  from  California,  by  Professor  E.  J.  Wickson, 
as  a  large  sized,  vigorous,  productive  variety,  first  grown  by  Wil- 
liam Barter,  of  Penryn,  Placer  county,  Cal.,  to  whom  it  was  given 
as  a  "foundling."  Largely  grown  in  the  foot-hill  regions  of  that 
.state.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  259. 

Beehive. — A  variety  introduced  by  Messrs.  Winter  &  Co.,  of 
the  Linnaean  Botanic  Garden,  Flushing,  N.  Y.  Fruit  large,  round, 
red,  ripe  in  July. — Amer.  Gards.  Asst.  p.  194. 

Bronze  Queen. — Mentioned  as  unproductive  and  only  moderately 
vigorous.— Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  13  (1891). 

Carleton. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Agassiz,  B.  C. 

Chester — Mentioned  by  C.  S.  Malbone,  of  South  Haven,  Mich., 
with  Brandywine,  as  the  best  raspberries. — Fruit  Grower's  Journal, 
April  1,  1893. 

Cincinnati  Eed  Antwerp. — Mentioned  as  grown  in  Wisconsin 
about  1874.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  263.  Perhaps  the  same 
as  False  Red  Antwerp. 


UNCLASSIFIED    VARIETIES.  213 

CooWs  Seedling. — Eeported  by  Dewain  Cook,  of  Windom, 
Minn.,  as  exceedingly  hardy  and  very  productive.  Plant  tall  and 
thrifty.  Fruit  dark  red,  quite  juicy,  small,  of  inferior  quality. — 
Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  9:  327. 

Craig. — A  seedling  of  unknown  parentage.  Originated  by 
Professor  Saunders,  of  Ontario,  and  named  in  honor  of  Professor 
John  Craig.  Described  as  large,  rather  conical,  dark  red,  of  the 
season  of  Marlboro ;  fairly  firm,  and  of  good  quality ;  a  good  grower 
and  prolific.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  265. 

Crimson  Cluster. — Described  as  fairly  vigorous,  producing  suck- 
ers close  to  the  old  canes.  Not  very  productive,  but  large,  of  fine 
appearance,  and  quite  firm. —  Ninth  Annual  Eept.  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Exp.  Sta.  Possibly  a  misnomer  for  Crimson  Beauty. 

Crimson  Queen. — A  variety  offered  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co. 

Early  Richmond. — Mentioned  in  Garden  and  Forest,  1892,  p.  458, 
as  grown  in  Cayuga  county,  N.  Y. 

Early  White. —  Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine  of  Horticulture 
for  1837,  p.  23,  as  a  valuable  variety. 

Elizabeth. — One  of  D.  W.  Herstine's  seedlings,  which  was  ex- 
amined and  described  by  a  committee  of  the  Pennsylvania  Horti- 
cultural Society  of  1870  as  follows :  "  Plant  a  very  strong  grower, 
great  bearer  and  suckering  moderately.  Canes  light  pea-green. 
Foliage  dark  green,  deeply  crimped,  pearl  gray  on  the  under  side. 
Fruit  very  large,  round,  crimson -scarlet.  Grains  large  and  strongly 
marked.  Firm,  of  delicious  flavor,  late." 

Elm  City.—  "A  hardy  sort.  Size  and  flavor  much  like  Philadel- 
phia. Eight  to  ten  days  later  than  other  varieties. "—Downing.  "A 
thornless  variety,  vigorous  in  growth,  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  good  color,  firm  and  sweet." — Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  Eept. 1807:  114. 

English  Red  Cane  (English  Purple,  False  Eed  Cane,  Allen). — 
Mentioned  under  this  name  and  synonomy  by  F.  E.  Elliott  as  a  va- 
riety much  grown  by  market- gardeners  in  1865.  Described  as  hav- 
ing tall,  bluish  red  canes,  with  a  whitish  gray  bloom.  Hardy  and 
productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  globular  or  slightly  conical, 
dull  red,  with  large  grains,  moderately  firm,  juicy,  and  pleasant, 
but  not  of  high  flavor.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  273.  Possibly 
this  may  have  been  the  same  as  False  Eed  Antwerp. 

Erwood  Everbearing. — On  trial  on  the  grounds  of  The  Eural 
New-Yorker  in  1879,  and  reported  as  one  of  the  hardiest  red  varie- 
ties.—Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  273. 

Excelsior. — Said  to  have  originated  in  Wisconsin.  A  variety  of 
this  name,  perhaps  the  same,  is  reported  as  worthless  in  Ohio. 

False  Red  Antwerp  (Allen,  Allen's  Antwerp,  English  Eed  Cane, 
Kirtland). — The  history  of  this  variety,  as  gathered  from  a  writer 


214  BUSH-FRUITS 

in  the  Gardener's  Monthly,  1862,  p.  38,  and  one  or  two  other 
sources,  is  in  substance  as  follows : 

In  1828,  or  thereabouts,  an  English  gardener  brought  to  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  a  variety  without  name.  It  proved  perfectly  hardy  and 
productive,  with  fruit  of  good  size  and  flavor.  The  Red  Antwerp 
was  then  the  standard  variety,  and  the  valuable  qualities  of  this 
unnamed  sort  led  to  its  being  called  by  that  name.  Later,  when 
the  true  Eed  Antwerp  came  to  be  known,  this  one  took  the  prefix 
"False,"  and  came  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  popular 
market  sorts,  under  the  name  of  False  Eed  Antwerp.  Still  later, 
there  came  to  be  three  varieties  distributed  as  this,  two  of  them 
probably  having  originated  as  seedlings  in  the  original  plantation. 
They  are  described  in  the  following  words : 

"  Of  these  two  seedlings,  one  closely  resembles  the  parent  in 
fruit,  but  the  canes  are  slightly  more  downy  and  the  tendency  to 
sucker  is  about  double,  while,  at  the  same  time,  its  bearing  quality 
is  reduced  about  one-half.  Another  has  canes  more  downy;  ten- 
dency to  sucker  is  increased,  while  its  productive  powers  are  in- 
different. In  fact,  a  great  proportion  of  its  blossoms  are  imper- 
fect, and  without  close  proximity  to  some  other  sort,  it  sets  but 
little  fruit,  or,  if  it  sets,  the  berry  is  imperfect. 

"In  1850  I  think  it  was,"  the  writer  continues,  "a  gentleman 
of  Cleveland  (F.  E.  Elliot)  sent  to  W.  H.  Sotham,  then  an  occu- 
pant of  lands  of  Lewis  F.  Allen,  one  thousand  plants  gathered 
indiscriminately  from  a  plantation  of  the  False  Eed  Antwerp  rasp- 
berry. And  now,  having  obtained  and  three  years  tested  plants 
received  by  others  from  Mr.  Allen's  grounds,  that  person  is  pre- 
pared to  say  that  the  Allen  raspberry  embraces  all  the  varieties 
enumerated  under  the  name  False  Eed  Antwerp."  This  history 
seems  to  explain  very  satisfactorily  the  cause  of  so  much  confusion 
over  the  so-called  Allen  raspberry.  The  same  writer  continues  : 

"And  now  for  a  little  history  of  the  so-called  Kirtland  rasp- 
berry. Some  years  since,  before  nurseries  were  very  abundant 
hereabouts,  and  people  found  it  difficult  to  procure  new  and  val- 
uable fruit,  Professor  I.  P.  Kirtland  was  in  the  habit  of  distributing 
to  his  friends  and  the  public,  with  a  free  hand,  all  his  surplus 
plants  of  any  sort.  To  Mrs.  Follet,  of  Sandusky,  the  Professor 
some  years  since  gave  of  the  False  Eed  Antwerp,  Fastolf,  and 
Franconia  raspberries,  a  few  plants  each,  the  former  being  hardy 
and  the  latter  tender.  After  a  time  the  tender  sorts  died  out,  while 
the  hardy  one  attracted  the  attention  of  H.  B.  Lum,  of  Sandusky, 
who,  without  knowledge  of  its  character,  but  knowing  that  it  came 
from  the  garden  of  Professor  Kirtland,  named  and  sent  it  out  as 
a  seedling  of  the  Professor's,  and  under  his  name." 

The  botanical  relationship  of  the  Allen  raspberry  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  Under  date  of  January  1,  1893,  Thomas  Meehan 


UNCLASSIFIED    VARIETIES  215 

wrote,  "  I  am  still  of  the  opinion  that  the  Allen  raspberry  belongs 
to  the  type  of  Rubus  Idceus.  It  certainly  has  no  relationship 
with  Rubus  strigosus."  On  April  25  of  the  same  year  A.  S. 
Fuller  wrote,  "As  for  the  Allen  raspberry  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion about  its  being  a  true  R.  strigosus,  for  it  came  from  the 
woods,  as  Mr.  Allen  himself  informed  me,  thirty  years  ago." 
It  is  quite  evident  that  more  £han  one  variety  must  have  been 
known  under  this  name.  If  the  above  history  showing  its  iden- 
tity with  the  False  Red  Antwerp  is  authentic,  we  might  expect 
it  to  have  been  an  English  variety,  appearing  as  it  did  in  the 
hands  of  an  English  gardener  as  early  as  1828.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  Mr.  Fuller's  information  was  correct,  that  it  was  taken 
from  the  woods,  it  must  have  been  R.  strigosus.  It  is  a  matter  of 
interest  in  connection  with  its  seedlings,  Elizabeth,  Herstine, 
Ruby  and  Saunders,  and  these  have  very  generally  been  thought 
to  contain  some  admixture  of  Rubus  Idceus. 

French  (R.  M.  Conklin's). — Mentioned  by  William  Parry,  in 
1869,  as  declining  in  favor.— Gar.  Month.  11:  337. 

Golden  Alaska. — Introduced  by  John  A.  Salzer,  of  La  Crosse, 
Wis.,  in  1891,  and  reported  to  have  been  found  in  one  of  the 
valleys  of  Alaska.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  277. 

Grant. — Mentioned  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  1869,  p.  123,  as  a 
new  variety  from  Auburn,  N.  Y.  Color  red;  size  large;  shape 
conical,  ripening  with  Red  Antwerp. 

Gn-ape  Fine.  — Sent  out  in  1878  by  William  Holland,  Plymouth, 
Ind.,  who  obtained  his  original  plants  from  John  German,  of 
Indiana.  So  named  on  account  of  the  appearance  of  the  canes 
and  the  large  leaves.  Ornamental,  but  of  no  value  for  fruit. 

Hawkins  Orange. — A  poor  fruit  of  no  value. — William  Parry  in 
Country  Gentleman  1878:  151. 

Herstine. — This  originated  with  Mr.  D.  W.  Herstine,  of  Branch- 
town,  Pa.,  according  to  whose  statement  it  was  raised  from  seed 
of  the  Allen  raspberry,  which  had  been  planted  in  alternate 
rows  with  the  Philadelphia.  Plant  a  good  grower,  bearing  early 
and  abundantly,  suckering  moderately.  Canes  strong,  of  a  pea 
green  color,  covered  with  white  bloom.  Spines  green  and  not 
abundant.  Foliage  healthy,  of  medium  size,  often  lobed.  Fruit 
large,  oblong,  with  small  grains  and  crimson  color.  Flavor  sub- 
acid  and  very  good.  Described  by  William  Parry  in  the  follow- 
ing words:  "As  large  as  Hornet,  bright  as  Pearl,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive as  Philadelphia,  and  delicious  as  Allen."  The  origin  of  the 
Allen  being  obscure,  the  classification  of  this  variety  is  left  in 
doubt.  On  the  grounds  of  its  originator  it  was  a  remarkable  berry, 
but  has  seldom  proved  so  successful  elsewhere.  It  appears  to  be 
slightly  deficient  in  pollen,  which  sometimes  diminishes  its  pro- 


216  BUSH-FRUITS 

ductiveness  and  causes  imperfect  berries.  A  colored  plate  show- 
ing fruit  appeared  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  October,  1870. 

Hiram.— Sent  out  by  W.  J.  Bradt,  of  Hannibal,  N.  Y.  De- 
scribed by  H.  E.  Van  Deman  as  very  large,  sharp,  conical.  Core 
large  and  rough.  Not  so  firm  as  Cuthbert,  but  a  fair  shipper. 
Bather  sharp  acid,  showing  traces  of  Antwerp  parentage.  Said  to 
be  hardy  and  productive.  Thought  to  be  a  cross  between  Rubus 
strigosus  and  Rubus  Idceus. 

Howell. — Mentioned  by  F.  E.  Elliott  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Ohio  Pomological  Society  for  1865  as  being  then  in  cultivation. 

Johnson. — Eeceived  from  Cincinnati  by  E.  Y.  Teas,  of  Indiana, 
in  1875,  and  reported  by  him,  after  a  brief  trial,  to  be  much  like 
the  Philadelphia.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  285. 

Keystone. — Originated  with  A.  L.  Felten,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Fuller  speaks  of  it  as  an  excellent  variety,  although  the  canes  are 
tender.  Fruit  very  large,  crimson. 

Kiriland. — See  False  Red  Antwerp. 

Kreigh. — Brought  to  notice  about  1880.  Claimed  to  be  of  fair 
size,  productive,  hardy,  of  excellent  quality,  and  firm. — Gar. 
Month.  22:  276. 

Large  White. — Mentioned  as  a  desirable  variety  in  Hovey's 
Magazine  of  Horticulture  1837:  23. 

Lindley. — Raised  by  Joseph  B.  Lindley,  of  Newark,  N.  J., 
early  in  the  sixties.  Said  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  Fastolf  and 
the  Native  Red.  Described  as  strong,  upright,  much  branched, 
tall.  Spines  greenish,  stout,  and  numerous.  Fruit  medium  to 
large,  conical,  a  little  obtuse,  crimson.  Grains  medium  to  large, 
compact.  Flesh  rather  soft,  juicy,  sweet,  good. 

Linton  (Red)  .—Mentioned  in  "  Rural  Affairs,"  vol.  7,  p.  81. 
Also  by  William  Parry,  of  New  Jersey,  in  1870,  as  unsuccessful. 

Little  Prolific. — A  red  variety  originated  with  John  Little,  of 
Ontario.  Sent  out  in  1883.  Plant  hardy,  slender  and  branching, 
bearing  heavily.  Shoots  green,  without  spines.  Fruit  medium, 
roundish,  slightly  conical,  purplish  red,  firm,  juicy,  acid  and 
sprightly.  No  longer  cultivated.  Probably  Rubus  neglectus. 

May  Orange.—  Offered  for  sale  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co. 

Mendocino. — A  Pacific  coast  variety.  Said  to  have  originated 
in  Mendocino  county,  Cal. ,  and  used  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa 
Rosa,  Cal.,  in  the  production  of  some  of  his  seedlings  and 
hybrids.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  290. 

Miller  Favorite  (Red). — On  trial  at  the  Michigan  Agricul- 
tural College  in  1887. 

Mohler  No.  1. — Mentioned    as   a  red   variety  on  trial  at   the 


UNCLASSIFIED    VARIETIES  217 

Indiana  Experiment  Station.  Described  as  moderately  vigorous, 
hardy  and  productive.  Of  good  quality,  and  firm. — Bull.  38:  13. 

My  Seedling. — Mentioned  by  George  J.  Kellogg  in  the  Report 
of  the  Wisconsin  Horticultural  Society  for  1887,  p.  241,  as  val- 
uable, having  withstood  the  winter  and  drought,  and  paid  better 
than  other  varieties. 

Nebraska. — Mentioned  by  William  Parry  in  1869,  as  no  longer 
popular.— Gar.  Month.  11:  237. 

Newark. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  in  1892,  at  the  Oklahoma  Ex- 
periment Station.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  294. 

New  Prolific. — Mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  Kansas  State 
Horticultural  Society  for  1884,  as  satisfactory  in  that  state. 

Northern  Wonder. — Spoken  of  as  an  excellent  variety  found  by 
one  of  the  Feltens.— Gar.  Month.  13:  246. 

Phoenix.—  Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897,  p.  598, 
as  a  very  early  red  variety. 

Pullman. — A  variety  mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  New  York 
Experiment  Station  about  1884.— Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1884:  251. 

Queen  Marguerite. — A  red  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan  about 
1885.  Reported  as  hardy,  productive,  of  fine  size  and  fair  quality, 
but  lacking  brightness  of  color. 

Bed  Cluster. — Described  by  T.  T.  Lyon  in  1893  as  late,  of 
medium  size,  red,  roundish  conical,  of  good  quality,  moderately 
productive.  At  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  it  is  vigorous, 
moderately  hardy.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill:  304. 

Richardson. — Mentioned  as  an  inferior  variety  cultivated  in  the 
West.— Gar.  Month.  1862:  339. 

Eider. — Spoken  of  by  T.  T.  Lyon  as  not  quite  satisfactory  in 
plant  but  beautiful  and  good. — Amer.  Pom.  Soc.  Rept. 1891:  119. 

Riley's  Early. — Downing  speaks  of  it  as  a  variety  from  New 
Jersey.  Of  medium  size,  good  flavor,  and  quite  early. 

Ruby. — Raised  by  D.  W.  Herstine.  Described  as  a  free  grower 
and  abundant  bearer.  Canes  strong,  of  a  light  green  shaded  with 
purple,  covered  with  white  bloom,  and  with  very  few  spines. 
Foliage  healthy,  light  green,  pearl  gray  on  the  under  side.  Fruit 
large,  round,  dark  crimson,  with  large  grains,  somewhat  hirsute. 
Flavor  somewhat  acid,  excellent. 

Saunders. — Originated  with  D.  W.  Herstine,  of  Branchtown, 
Pa. ,  who  raised  it  from  the  seed  of  the  Allen  planted  in  alternate 
rows  with  the  Philadelphia.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  William 
Saunders,  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Described  as  a  good  bearer, 
suckering  freely.  Canes  green,  shaded  with  purple.  Spines 
numerous,  small  and  light  green.  Foliage  light  green  and  abun- 


218  B  USH-FR  UITS 

dant.  Fruit  very  large,  round,  crimson,  with  large  grains.  Flavor 
of  high  character  and  delicious. 

Short-jointed  Cane. — Described  by  Prince,  in  the  Pomological 
Manual  published  in  1832,  as  almost  spineless,  with  close,  jointed 
canes.  Fruit  pleasant,  rather  larger  than  the  Common  Bed,  but 
not  quite  equal  to  the  Tall  Bed  Cane,  though  superior  to  it  in 
flavor;  later  in  ripening  than  the  Common  Bed,  producing  good 
crops.  Crozier  refers  it  to  Rubus  strigosus. 

St.  Louis. — A  popular  variety  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  about  1867.  Said  to  be  hardy,  large,  bright  red,  sweet, 
and  of  excellent  flavor. 

Tall  Bed  Cane. — Described  by  William  Prince,  about  1832,  as 
productive.  Fruit  round,  of  good  size  and  quality,  but  not  of 
high  flavor.  Canes  covered  at  the  base  and  extremities  with 
numerous  fine  spines  or  hairs.  It  is  also  mentioned  by  Bridge  - 
man  in  the  "American  Gardener's  Assistant." 

Victor  (Bed) . — Tender  and  unproductive,  fair  to  poor  quality. 

Watson  Seedling. — Inquired  about  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly, 
vol.  1,  p.  139,  but  unknown  to  the  editor. 

Wauregan. — Mentioned  in  "Bural  Affairs,"  vol.  8,  p.  81.  A 
failure  with  William  Parry,  of  New  Jersey. 

Waterloo. — Mentioned  among  the  varieties  planted  for  trial  at 
the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College  in  1888. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
Ill:  318. 

White  Canada. — Baised  by  Charles  Arnold,  of  Paris,  Ontario. 
Canes  vigorous,  upright,  brownish  yellow.  Spines  white,  quite 
stout,  numerous.  Fruit  about  the  shape  of  Brinckl6's  Orange. 
Pale  yellow,  of  decided  Antwerp  flavor. 

White  Mountain  (Bed). — Tender,  late,  unproductive,  rather 
soft,  and  of  poor  quality. — Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  21 :  10. 


BECOMMENDED  VARIETIES 

None  of  the  varieties  mentioned  in  this  list  are  of 
sufficient  prominence  at  the  present  time  to  deserve 
recommendation. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

VARIETIES    OF    BLACKBERRIES    AND     DEWBERRIES 
A.      THE    BLACKBERRIES 

The  blackberry  family  is  an  exceedingly  variable 
one,  and  within  the  limits  of  the  species  to  which  it 
belongs,  and  those  species  closely  related  to  it,  may  be 
found  an  almost  endless  variety  of  forms.  Many  of 
these  produce  fruit  of  desirable  size  and  quality,  and  it 
is  by  no  means  certain  that  we  have  as  yet  secured  the 
most  desirable  ones  for  cultivation.  All  our  common 
high  blackberries  belong  to  the  species  known  as  Rubus 
nigrobaccus  and  R.  argutus.  In  typical  forms,  the 
former  is  characterized  by  vigorous,  upright,  thorny 
bushes,  bearing  numerous  glandular -tipped  hairs  on 
the  peduncles,  petioles  and  other  young  parts  of  the 
plant.  Forms  occur,  however,  which  are  almost  des- 
titute of  thorns,  or  of  glands,  or  of  both.  Several 
botanical  varieties  belonging  to  this  species  have  been 
n#med,  and  no  one  can  say  how  many  more  might  be 
recognized  with  equal  propriety  if  the  forms  could  be 
all  collected  for  study.  The  typical  form  of  the 
species  bears  long  or  oblong  fruit,  comparatively  sweet 
and  rather  dull  in  color.  Rubus  argutus  is  much  like 
this  common  blackberry,  but  lacks  the  pubescence. 

A  closely  related,  and  perhaps  equally  common 
species,  at  least  on  high  land,  is  the  Mountain  Black- 

(219) 


220  BUSH-FRUITS 

berry,  Rubus  Canadensis  (R.  Millspaughii,  Britt).  In 
this  species  the  main  canes  are  almost  wholly  destitute 
of  thorns,  the  fruit  is  apt  to  be  sour,  sometimes  even 
bitterish,  and  is  much  shorter  and  thicker,  with  larger, 
glossy  black  drupelets.  Whether  seedlings  of  this 
species  can  be  acclimated  to  lower  altitudes  without 
acquiring  to  a  degree  the  objectionable  thorny  dress 
of  their  lowland  neighbors,  has  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined. Indeed,  it  may  be  fairly  questioned  whether 
it  is  worth  while  to  make  the  attempt,  since  the  fruit 
is  generally  considered  inferior  to  that  of  the  Long 
Blackberry.  Still,  this  inferiority  is  not  great,  and  if, 
by  crossing  this  species  with  our  commoner  garden 
varieties,  the  thorns  can  thereby  be  reduced,  the  object 
is  well  worth  the  seeking.  The  fruit  ripens  later,  but 
this  is  doubtless  chiefly  due  to  elevation.  This  type 
reaches  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  high  mountains  of 
the  Appalachian  system.  It  is  often  found  in  dense 
forests,  where  the  canes  sometimes  reach  a  height  of 
fifteen  or  eighteen  feet,  and  are  as  thornless  and 
smooth  as  a  willow  twig.  In  such  localities  the  fruit 
is  said  to  be  greatly  appreciated  by  the  mountain  bears, 
which  are  enabled  to  draw  down  the  smooth  canes  and 
fatten  upon  the  berries  for  their  long  hibernating  sleep 
during  winter.  Where  is  the  philosopher  who  is  ready 
to  construct  a  theory  on  the  disappearance  of  thorns 
as  the  result  of  the  silken  touch  of  Bruin's  breast  as 
he  and  his  ancestors  have  yearly  sought  this  autumn 
feast ! 

Still  another  species  which  produces  fruit  of  excel- 
lent quality  is  the  Sand  Blackberry,  Rubus  cuneifolius, 


EVOLUTION    OF    THE    BLACKBERRY  221 

of  the  southern  states.  The  characters  of  this  are  in 
strong  contrast  to  those  of  the  one  just  mentioned,  for 
it  is  a  short,  stubby  plant,  bristling  all  over  with 
stout  hooked  thorns,  and  with  a  decidedly  woolly  coat 
on  the  under  surface  of  its  small  wedge-shaped  leaflets. 
In  spite  of  its  rugged  appearance,  it  does  not  endure 
our  northern  winters  well,  and  may  never  become  a 
serviceable  member  of  the  family  except  in  the  sunny 
clime  of  its  choice. 

Were  it  not  that  the  legend  of  the  man  of  won- 
drous wisdom,  who  jumped  into  a  bramble  bush  and 
scratched  out  both  his  eyes,  doubtless  had  its  origin 
in  the  dim  history  of  the  Old  World,  we  might  im- 
agine this  to  have  been  the  species  concerned,  for  no 
American  bramble  appears  to  be  better  able  to  ac- 
complish such  a  feat! 

The  following  sketch  of  blackberry  history  was  once 
contributed  by  the  writer  to  The  American  Garden: 

HISTORY  AND  FUTURE  OF  THE  BLACKBERRY 

The  blackberry  or  bramble  of  Europe  (Rubus  fruticosus)  does 
not  appear  to  enjoy  a  very  high  reputation  in  its  native  country 
for  the  value  and  quality  of  its  fruit.  It  is  occasionally  spoken  of 
as  being  useful  for  tarts  or  similar  culinary  preparations,  espe- 
cially if  liberally  supplemented  with  apples  to  give  spice  and 
flavor.  It  is  also  brought  forward  as  deserving  of  notice  because 
it  offers  a  cheap  source  of  food  in  the  shape  of  jam,  etc.,  for  the 
poor,  either  to  be  obtained  for  themselves  or  for  the  more  wealthy 
to  provide  in  anticipation  of  distributing  to  them  as  necessity  may 
demand.  The  plant,  evidently,  even  to  a  greater  degree  than  in 
our  own  country,  partakes  too  much  of  the  nature  of  a  trouble- 
some weed  to  become  popular  with  the  more  fastidious.  In  addi- 


222  BUSH-FRUITS 

tion  to  this  fact,  the  fruit  is  not  equal  in  flavor  and  quality  to  that 
of  our  own  species.  Several  passages  in  Shakespeare  serve  to 
give  a  good  idea  of  the  social  rank  of  the  English  blackberry : 

Falstaff.—^If    reasons    were   as  plenty  as    Blackberries,   I    would 
give  no  man  a  reason  on  compulsion." 

— 1st  Henry  IV.,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  4. 

.Fatotajf.— "Shall  the  blessed  sun  of  Heaven  prove  a  micher  and  eat 
Blackberries?" 

— 1st  Henry  IV.,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  4. 

Thersitef.— "That    same    dog-fox    Ulysses    is    not   proved   worth   a 
Blackberry." 

—Troilus  and  Cressida,  Act  v.,  Sc.  4. 

In  its  early  history,  other  qualities  seem  to  have  been  con- 
sidered more  important  than  its  fruit.  According  to  Pliny,  the 
ancients  were  taught  by  means  of  the  bramble  bush  how  to  prop- 
agate trees  by  layers.  It  was,  no  doubt,  held  in  greatest  esteem, 
however,  for  its  supposed  medicinal  qualities.  "The  berries," 
says  Pliny,  "are  the  food  of  man,  and  have  a  dessicative  and 
astringent  virtue,  and  serve  as  a  most  appropriate  remedy  for  the 
gums  and  inflammation  of  the  tonsils."  Both  the  flowers  and 
berries  were  thought  by  the  ancients  to  be  remedies  against  even 
the  most  venomous  serpents.  Pliny  further  states  that  "the  juice 
pressed  out  of  young  shoots,  and  reduced  to  the  consistency  of 
honey,  by  standing  in  the  sun,  is  a  singular  medicine  taken  in- 
wardly, or  applied  outwardly,  for  all  diseases  of  the  mouth  and 
eyes,  as  well  as  for  the  quinsy."  The  roots,  boiled  in  wine,  were 
esteemed  one  of  the  best  astringents  by  Roman  physicians,  and 
used  in  all  diseases  of  the  mouth.  The  leaves,  pounded  and 
applied  to  ringworms  and  ulcers,  were  said  to  bring  speedy  relief. 
Boerhave,  a  renowned  physician  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, affirms  that  the  roots,  dug  in  February  or  March  and  boiled 
with  honey,  are  an  excellent  remedy  against  dropsy.  In  a  work 
entitled  "A  Niewe  Herball,  or  Historic  of  Plantes,"  first  written 
by  D.  Eembert  Dodoen,  physician  to  the  German  emperor,  and 
afterward  translated  into  French,  then  from  French  into  English 
by  Gerard  Dewes,  in  1578,  the  "nature"  of  the  blackberry  is  set 
forth  as  follows:  "The  tender  springes  and  new  leaves  of  the 
Bramble  are  colde  and  drie  almost  in  the  thirde  degree,  and 


A    BLACKBERRY  LEGEND  223 

astringent  or  binding,  and  so  is  the  unripe  fruite.  The  ripe  fruite 
is  somewhat  warme  and  astringent,  but  not  so  much  as  the  unrype 
fruite."  Then  are  given  a  long  list  of  "  vertues,"  among  which 
are  the  following:  "They  do  also  fasten  the  teeth,  when  the 
mouth  is  washed  with  the  juyce  or  decoction  thereof.  The  unripe 
fruite  is  good  for  the  same  purpose,  to  be  used  after  the  same 
manner."  "The  leaves  be  stamped  &  with  good  effect  are  applyed 
to  the  region  or  place  of  the  stomacke  against  the  trembling  of 
the  hart,  the  payne  &  looseness  or  ache  of  the  stomacke."  It  is  to 
be  feared  that  Pliny  and  others  of  these  old  writers  do  not  rank 
high  as  medical  authorities  at  the  present  day,  yet  the  plant  and 
fruit  of  the  blackberry  are  still  employed  in  various  ways,  with 
very  gratifying  results,  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  According  to 
legend,  the  origin  of  the  disagreeably  thorny  character  of  the 
blackberry,  as  told  by  Waterton,  was  on  this  fashion :  "  The  Cor- 
morant was  once  a  wool  merchant.  He  entered  into  partnership 
with  the  Bramble  and  the  Bat,  and  they  freighted  a  large  ship 
with  wool ;  she  was  wrecked  and  the  firm  became  bankrupt. 
Since  that  disaster  the  Bat  skulks  about  till  midnight  to  avoid  his 
creditors,  the  Cormorant  is  forever  diving  into  the  deep  to  dis- 
cover its  foundered  vessel,  while  the  Bramble  seizes  hold  of  every 
passing  sheep  to  make  up  its  loss  by  stealing  the  wool." 

Perhaps  it  would  be  casting  discredit  on  the  worthy  ancestors 
who  braved  so  many  dangers  in  the  settlement  of  our  country,  to 
charge  them  with  undue  conservatism,  yet  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  men  who  would  brave  the  uncertainties,  not  to  say 
terrors,  of  an  ocean  voyage  on  an  almost  unknown  sea,  and  the 
settlement  of  a  new  country  peopled  with  savages  of  unknown 
traits  and  tendencies,  rather  than  surrender  ideas  which  they 
cherished,  would  not  be  quick  to  form  new  ones.  Hence  we  can 
readily  conclude  that  the  blackberry  of  America  was  to  them 
much  what  the  blackberry  of  England  had  been— simply  a  wild 
bramble,  to  be  destroyed  when  possible  and  replaced  by  some- 
thing better,  and  whose  fruit  was  to  be  gathered  at  will.  More- 
over, to  cultivate  a  fruit  which  was  so  readily  obtained  in  abun- 
dance for  the  gathering,  would  have  been  folly  to  them,  when 
many  other  things  conducive  to  their  safety  and  comfort  were  so 


224  BUSH-FRUITS 

much  more  needed.  As  time  went  on,  however,  this  gratuitous 
feast  of  nature,  provided  for  the  fostering  of  "  infant  industries," 
began  to  diminish,  and  the  demand  of  growing  cities  for  increased 
quantities  of  fruit  doubtless  led  to  the  idea  of  cultivating  the 
blackberry  among  the  rest.  Just  when  this  state  of  affairs  was 
reached  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  evidently  not  until  quite  late 
in  our  national  development,  for  the  blackberry  does  not  seem  to 
have  begun  to  receive  much  notice  or  to  be  talked  about  in  the 
horticultural  journals  until  about  1850.  From  Hovey's  Magazine  of 
Horticulture,  it  appears  that  Capt.  Josiah  Lovett,  of  Beverly, 
Mass.,  figured  prominently  in  introducing  it  to  cultivation.  Even 
then,  as  with  many  other  good  and  useful  things,  first  impressions 
were  unfavorable.  Of  course,  the  first  effort  would  naturally  be 
to  bring  plants,  which  bore  the  most  promising  fruit,  from  the 
woods  and  clearings  and  set  them  in  the  garden.  This  attempt  to 
tame  the  wild  proteg6  of  the  forest  did  not  often  prove  satisfac- 
tory. These  plants  evidently  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  refine- 
ments of  civilization,  and  longed  for  their  free  •  and  easy  life  of 
the  wood.  Capt.  Lovett  reports  repeated  failures  in  trying  to  get 
good  berries  by  this  method.  He  persevered  for  five  years,  but 
at  last  gave  up  in  despair  about  1840,  and  surrendered  this  wild 
gypsy  of  the  fruits  to  its  native  haunts  as  untamable.  In  spite 
of  these  discouraging  results  he  evidently  did  not  abandon  the 
dream  of  a  cultivated  blackberry,  for  Downing  gives  him  the 
credit  of  having  introduced  the  Dorchester,  which  in  time  proved 
so  valuable,  although  according  to  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  as  re- 
ported in  the  "Transactions  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural 
Society"  for  1883,  p.  129,  it  was  brought  to  notice  by  Eliphalet 
Thayer,  who  first  exhibited  it  before  that  society,  August  7,  1841. 
But  these  first  introductions  to  cultivation,  the  Dorchester  and 
Lawton,  were  not  calculated  to  bring  swift  and  lasting  popularity 
to  the  blackberry  as  a  garden  fruit,  for  although  large  and  attrac- 
tive, their  habit  of  turning  black  before  they  are  ripe  nearly 
always  led  to  their  being  gathered  and  eaten  while  green,  and 
their  consequent  condemnation  as  sour  and  poor  in  quality. 
Moreover,  their  culture,  being  little  understood,  led  to  frequent 
failures  and  unsatisfactory  results,  while  their  propensity  to  per- 


TYPES  IN  CULTIVATION  225 

sist  and  spread,  aided  by  their  unmerciful  thorns,  conspired  to 
render  them  a  terror  to  many  timid  gardeners.  In  spite  of  all 
this,  the  blackberry  has  steadily  pushed  its  way  into  prominence, 
until  it  is  to-day  one  of  our  most  satisfactory  and  profitable  crops. 
Here,  as  with  all  other  fruits,  we  are  far  from  attaining  perfec- 
tion. We  have  no  ideal  variety.  If  we  demand  the  best  in  point 
of  hardiness,  we  must  yield  in  size  and  quality;  if  delicacy  of 
flavor  is  the  desideratum,  something  else  will  be  deficient.  Yet 
to  stand  by  a  well -grown  row  of  Early  Cluster,  for  example,  to  see 
its  glistening  sprays  of  glossy  black  hanging  in  such  graceful 
profusion,  to  gather  its  magnificent  berries  and  to  test  their  sweet 
and  melting  quality,  just  like  those  finest  and  ripest  ones  we 
used  now  and  then  to  chance  upon  in  some  wooded  nook  which 
everybody  else  had  missed,  is  to  forget  for  the  time  being  that 
anything  further  is  to  be  desired  in  a  blackberry.  Still  we  have 
reason  to  hope  that  the  achievements  of  this  energetic  and  vig- 
orous pomological  youth  are  but  an  omen  .of  what  is  yet  to  come. 

There  are  several  distinct  types  of  blackberries  in 
cultivation,  but  to  properly  classify  all  varieties  under 
these  types  is  manifestly  impossible,  since  the  varieties 
themselves  are  not  accessible  for  comparison,  many  of 
them  having  already  disappeared  from  cultivation,  while 
others  are  yet  too  new.  Descriptions  seldom  furnish 
sufficient  data  upon  which  to  determine  such  matters. 
Still  it  may  be  advisable  to  carry  the  classification  as 
far  as  possible,  as  a  matter  of  aid  to  future  study  by 
those  who  have  opportunity  to  do  it. 

This  inventory  aims  to  include  descriptions  of  all 
varieties  of  blackberries  and  dewberries  which  have 
been  mentioned  as  cultivated  in  North  America  up  to 
the  close  of  1897.  They  are  classified  as  follows: 

I.  Long -cluster  blackberries. 
II.  Short -cluster  blackberries. 


226  B  USH-FR  UITS 

III.  Leafy -cluster  blackberries. 

IV.  White  blackberries. 

V.  Loose -cluster  blackberries. 

VI.  Sand  blackberries. 

VII.  Northern  dewberries. 

VIII.  Southern  dewberries. 

IX.  Western  dewberries. 


I.    THE  LONG-CLUSTER  BLACKBERRIES 
Rubus   nigrobaccus 

The  form  which  has  somehow  come  to  represent  in 
our  minds  the  type  of  the  species  to  which  most  of  our 
blackberries  belong  is  designated  by  Professor  Bailey 
(Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  99:428)  as  the  "Long- 
cluster  blackberry."  This  is  the  commonest  form  of 
the  wild  blackberry  found  in  low  lands  throughout  the 
eastern  states.  The  berries  are  long  and  cylindrical  or 
thimble -shaped,  with  dull  black  drupelets,  rather  small 
and  closely  packed  on  the  receptacle.  Each  berry  is 
borne  on  a  long,  slender  stem,  which  stands  out  some- 
times almost  at  right  angles  to  the  main  stem,  and  the 
clusters  are  long,  open  and  leafless.  The  leaflets  are 
rather  long -stalked,  evenly  and  finely  serrate,  and  gen- 
erally with  a  very  long  tapering  point. 

Probably  the  best  known  representative  of  this  class 
in  cultivation  is  the  Taylor,  though  the  Ancient  Briton 
and  the  Early  Cluster  also  belong  here. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience,  all  varieties  which  it  is 
impossible  to  definitely  classify  at  present  are  mentioned 
here,  though  many  of  them,  doubtless,  belong  else- 


UNCLASSIFIED    VARIETIES  227 

where,  especially  in  the  "short -cluster"  group.  Those 
which  can  be  definitely  referred  to  the  "long -cluster" 
class  are  so  marked. 

A  lien.—  Received  at  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture in  1894,  from  W.  B.  K.  Johnson,  Allentown,  Pa.,  and 
described  in  the  report  of  the  Pomologist  for  that  year.  Said  to 
be  very  productive,  stronger  than  Kittatinny,  with  less  thorns. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  irregular,  oblong  or  oval,  glossy,  jet  black, 
not  fading;  seeds  small,  very  tender;  flesh  firm,  compact,  very 
juicy ;  shipping  quality  good ;  flavor  mild,  sweet,  with  hardly 
enough  acidity;  quality  good,  ripening  about  with  Early  Harvest. 

Ancient  Briton.  (Long-cluster  type.) — Much  confusion  exists 
regarding  the  origin  of  this  variety.  According  to  one  report  it 
was  named  by  Robert  Hassell,  of  Alderly,  Wisconsin,  who  received 
it  from  England.  Another  report  credits  it  with  being  a  Wis- 
consin seedling,  found  by  one  A.  H.  Briton,  for  whom  it  was 
named,  the  name  later  becoming  changed  to  Ancient  Briton. 
According  to  Professor  Budd,  the  first  mention  of  the  variety  is 
found  in  the  Report  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Society  for 
1869,  p.  475.  The  plant  belongs  to  an  American  species  of  black- 
berry, whatever  its  origin.  It  has  proved  one  of  the  most  valuable 
sorts  grown  in  Wisconsin,  being  the  favorite  at  the  famous  Thayer 
Fruit-Farm  at  Sparta.  The  bush  is  sturdy,  hardy  and  very  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  medium  to  large,  long,  melting,  of  fine  flavor  and 
ripening  about  with  Snyder.  One  of  the  best  varieties  where  it 
succeeds.  It  does  not  thrive  as  well  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  In 
Rhode  Island  it  seems  to  demand  pollination  from  other  varieties. 

Bangor. — A  variety  of  Maine  origin.  It  was  first  propagated 
from  plants  growing  on  the  farm  of  Henry  W.  Brown,  in  New- 
bury.  It  is  said  to  be  hardy  and  a  desirable  variety. — Agr.  of 
Maine,  1888:125. 

Banton  (Seedling). — A  variety,  said  to  be  from  Vermont, 
which  proves  very  hardy  in  Minnesota.  Productive,  stout  and 
good.— Minn.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.,  1874:57. 

Barnard  (Long-cluster  type).— Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the 
wild  blackberries  of  Belmont  county,  Ohio,  taken  to  Allamakee 
county,  Iowa,  and  disseminated  by  Mr.  Barnard.  A  popular  va- 
riety in  northern  Illinois  and  Iowa,  where  it  has  proved  very  hardy. 
Not  a  vigorous  grower,  throwing  up  few  suckers  ;  leaves  large 
resembling  wild  varieties.  Fruit  similar  to  Taylor  in  size  and 
form,  of  fair  quality,  and  ripening  late.  From  the  description  it 
evidently  belongs  to  this  group. 

Bonanza. — Said  to  be  hardier  than  the    Kittatinny,   about  as 


228  BUSH-FRUITS 

large,  though  scarcely  as  sweet,  and  about  as  productive  ;  ripen- 
ing a  little  earlier  than  Kittatinny.  Not  of  great  value. 

Brandenburg. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  286. 

Cape  May. — "Fruit  large,  black,  sweet,  quite  soft,  loses  color 
soon  after  gathering,  not  valuable." — Downing. 

Carlo. — A  variety  growing  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station,  which  appeared  vigorous,  but  not  productive,  much  of  the 
fruit  being  imperfect.  Also  lacks  hardiness. 

Cherry  Valley. — A  variety  which  originated  near  Cherry  Valley, 
111.— 111.  Hort.  Soc.  Eept.  1882:  284. 

Clark. — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1897,  p. 
598,  as  received  from  Matthew  Crawford  the  spring  previous.  The 
growth  was  vigorous  and  the  few  berries  received  were  large, 
black,  glossy,  melting  and  juicy. 

Cumberland. — A  variety  chiefly  known  about  Bridgeton,  N.  J. 
Plant  hardy  and  productive ;  fruit  of  medium  size,  black,  sweet  and 
good.  Early,  and  matures  the  whole  crop  in  a  short  time. — Fuller. 

Cutter  Mulberry. — Introduced  by  G.  B.  Cutter,  Newton,  Mass., 
about  1859.  Fruit  long,  slender,  remarkably  sweet,  very  produc- 
tive.—Hov.  Mag.  1859:  397. 

Dallas. — A  Texas  variety,  found  hardy,  vigorous,  productive  and 
reliable  there,  but  of  little  value  in  the  North. 

Dehring. — An  early  variety,  about  equal  to  Brunton  in  hardiness 
and  productiveness ;  fruit  small. 

Dodge  Thornless. — Mentioned  in  the  Secretary's  report,  Agr. 
of  Mass.,  1868-9,  p.  72,  as  a  variety  almost  free  from  thorns. 

Duncan  Falls. — Introduced  by  J.  C.  Neff,  Duncan's  Falls, 
Ohio.  An  upright,  very  vigorous  grower.  Fruit  large,  black, 
moderately  firm,  juicy,  sweet. — Downing. 

Early  Cluster  (Long-cluster  group). — The  original  plant  was 
discovered  about  1872,  among  Missouri  Mammoth,  on  the  farm  of 
Charles  W.  Starn,  in  Southern  New  Jersey,  where  it  attracted 
attention  from  its  early  and  profuse  bearing,  and  was  transplanted 
and  propagated  for  market.  It  is  a  moderate,  erect,  healthy 
grower,  hardy  and  extremely  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium 
sized,  short-oblong,  shining  black,  sweet  and  of  fine  quality, 
without  hard  or  bitter  core.  The  entire  crop  ripens  within  a  few 
days,  making  it  a  very  desirable  early  market  berry.  This  is  a 
variety  of  ill  repute  in  many  sections,  but  on  the  grounds  of  the 
Cornell  University  Experiment  Station  it  is  one  of  the  finest 
blackberries  grown  and  the  most  uniformly  productive.  Either 
spurious  stock  has  been  sent  out  under  this  name,  or  the  variety 
is  extremely  local  in  its  adaptations,  as  reports  from  the  Geneva 


UNCLASSIFIED    BLACKBERRY     VARIETIES       229 

(N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  only  forty  miles  away  from  Cornell, 
are  unfavorable.  For  myself,  I  have  never  seen  a  more  satisfac- 
tory blackberry,  nor  tasted  one  of  finer  quality,  than  the  Early 
Cluster  as  grown  at  Cornell. 

Eldorado. — Originated  as  an  accidental  seedling  in  Preble  Co., 
Ohio,  near  a  village  of  that  name,  and  first  placed  under  cultivation 
about  1882.  Medium  to  large  fruit  of  excellent  quality,  oblong, 
conical,  irregular,  with  very  large  drupes  and  small  seeds  and 
core.  Claimed  to  be  hardy  and  productive. 

Excelsior. — Productive,  of  fair  quality,  good  size,  season  me- 
dium; lacks  hardiness. — Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  6:4. 

Farley. — Origin  unknown.  Fruit  nearly  as  large  as  New 
Rochelle,  sweet,  and  ripens  two  "weeks  earlier. —  Horticulturist. 

Felton. — Introduced  by  Oscar  Felton,  Camden,  N.  J.  Bather 
spreading  in  habit  of  growth  ;  fruit  large,  long,  slightly  conical, 
sweet  and  good.  Eipens  early  and  is  moderately  productive,  but 
with  berries  often  very  defective. — Fuller. 

Freed. — A  variety  originated  about  1871  by  George  Freed,  of 
Columbiana  Co.,  Ohio.  A  rank,  upright  grower,  with  few  spines 
and  very  hardy.  Berry  small  to  medium,  oblong,  juicy,  of  good 
quality,  ripening  with  Snyder.  A  shy  bearer,  and  not  to  be 
recommended. 

Gainor. — Large  and  productive,  but  not  sufficiently  hardy  at 
Ottawa,  Canada. — Kept.  Can.  Exp.  Farms,  1889:  95. 

Grape. — Mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  American  Porno- 
logical  Society  as  a  variety  with  strong  canes  and  large  fruit. — 
Am.  Pom.  Soc.  Kept.  1860:  76. 

Haley. — A  dwarf  variety,  found  growing  along  the  prairie 
ravines  of  Franklin  Co.,  Kansas.  It  was  first  brought  under 
cultivation  byE.  Haley,  about  1880.  Fruit  medium  size  and  excel- 
lent quality.— Kan.  Hort.  Soc.  Eepts.  1884:  50—1885:  81. 

Hoag. — I  have  the  history  of  this  variety  from  A.  W.  Sias,  of 
Pueblo,  Colorado,  formerly  of  Minnesota,  who  says  that  it  origi- 
nated many  years  ago  with  Charles  R.  Hoag,  who  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Minnesota  Horticultural  Society,  and 
who  then  lived  at  Kasson,  Dodge  Co.,  Minn.  The  variety  was 
named  for  him  by  the  society.  Mr.  Sias  says  that  it  was  very 
productive  on  the  grounds  of  the  originator,  but  did  next  to 
nothing  on  his  more  open  grounds. 

Holcomb. — First  brought  to  public  notice  at  one  of  the  weekly 
exhibitions  of  the  Hartford  Co.  (Conn.)  Horticultural  Society, 
in  the  summer  of  1855,  by  E.  A.  Holcomb,  of  Granby,  Conn. 
The  fine  appearance  and  flavor  of  some  of  the  berries  growing  wild 
upon  a  hillside  of  his  farm  induced  him  to  transplant  some  of 


230  BUSH-FRUITS 

the  best  of  the  bushes  to  his  garden.  The  comparative  merits 
of  the  fruit  after  three  or  four  years'  successive  exhibition  war- 
ranted the  society  in  giving  it  a  name.  Canes  dark  brown,  mod- 
erately stout,  long  and  thrifty,  but  not  rampant;  productive  and 
hardy  ;  fruit  of  medium  size,  oblong,  sweet  and  high  flavored, 
early,  and  continuing  to  ripen  for  a  long  time. 

Hoosac  Thornless. — Found  in  the  Hoosac  Mountains  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Its  chief  recommendation  is  the  absence  of  thorns. 
Fruit  not  large,  but  said  to  be  productive  and  of  good  quality. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  this  variety  belongs  to  the  true  thornless 
group,  Eubus  Canadensis.  Its  thornless  character  and  its  original 
mountain  habitat  would  point  in  this  direction. 

Idaho  Climbing. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p. 
285.  It  may  have  been  the  cut-leaved  blackberry  or  a  western 
dewberry  for  all  we  know  now. 

Jordan. — A  variety  recently  introduced  by  J.  W.  Austin,  Pilot 
Point,  Texas,  a  native  of  that  state.  Described  as  a  very  strong 
grower,  hardy,  and  remarkably  productive.  Fruit  large,  of  fine 
flavor,  ripening  ten  days  later  than  Dallas  and  Early  Harvest. 

Knox. — Vigorous,  large,  about  as  hardy  as  Kittatinny,  of  good 
quality  but  lacking  in  productiveness. 

Lincoln. — A  wild  plant  found  about  two  miles  from  President 
Lincoln's  monument,  near  Springfield,  111.  A  vigorous,  upright 
grower,  with  long  spines,  hardy,  a  little  later  than  Snyder.  Fruit 
large,  oblong,  glossy,  juicy,  of  good  quality;  grain  and  seed  large. 

Luther. — A  new  variety  sent  out  by  R.  D.  Luther,  Fredonia, 
N.  Y.  Said  to  be  vigorous,  hardy  and  promising. 

Mason  Mountain. — Introduced  by  R.  O.  Thompson,  of  Ne- 
braska, about  1865.  Fruit  large,  conical,  black,  sweet,  rich, 
resembling  Lawton. — Hov.  Mag.  1865:  122. 

Maxwell. — Introduced  by  A.  C.  Maxwell,  Chanute,  Kansas. 
Described  as  very  large,  sweet,  rich,  luscious,  melting,  and  very 
productive,  ripening  with  Early  Harvest.  Bush  a  low,  strong, 
stocky  grower.  Not  hardy  in  Pennsylvania. 

McCracken. — Found  in  an  Illinois  wood  by  Mr.  McCracken. 
Hardy,  early  and  of  good  quality,  but  small.  Of  little  value. 

Missouri  Mammoth. — Disseminated  from  Northern  Missouri.  A 
moderate,  upright  grower,  not  entirely  hardy,  and  a  shy  bearer, 
not  all  blossoms  setting  fruit,  and  some  imperfect.  Berry  large, 
oval,  of  fair  quality;  grain  and  seed  large.  A  little  later  than 
Snyder.  Of  little  value. 

Mountain  Rose. — Mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  Kansas  Horti- 
cultural Society  for  1886,  p.  297. 


UNCLASSIFIED   BLACKBERRY    VARIETIES      231 

Nevada. — Said  to  be  about  equal  to  Minnewaski  in  hardiness, 
quite  productive,  of  fair  size  and  excellent  quality.  Has  not 
proved  valuable  in  Michigan. 

Ohmer. — A  seedling  found  by  N.  Ohmer,  of  Ohio.  Said  to  be 
hardy,  healthy  and  productive.  Fruit  large,  firm,  no  core,  and 
sweet  before  it  becomes  soft.  Ripens  with  Taylor. 

Ozark. — "Better  than  either  Snyder  or  Taylor,  and  more  pro- 
ductive."—Mo.  Hort.  Soc.  Eept.  1883:  79. 

Parker  Early. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  286. 

Parnell. — A  variety  originated  by  Mr.  Normand,  of  Marshville, 
Louisiana. — La.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  3,  2d  series. 

Piasa.— Sent  out  by  E.  A.  Riehl,  Alton,  111. 

Bed  Hybrid.  Mentioned  in  * '  Experiments  and  Public  Work  of 
the  Colorado  Agr.  College,"  1884,  p.  15. 

Eeyner. — Plants  rather  large  and  vigorous,  producing  large, 
greenish  canes  with  few  prickles.  Fruit  above  medium,  roundish 
or  oblong,  with  large  grains,  sweet,  of  good  flavor  and  quality. — 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  81:  582. 

Role  Early. — Mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  Kansas  Hort. 
Soc.  for  1887-8,  p.  482. 

Sable  Queen. — Introduced  by  J.  W.  Manning,  Reading,  Mass., 
and  described  by  him  as  equal  to  Dorchester  or  New  Rochelle  in 
size,  beauty  and  fruitfulness. — Downing. 

Sadie. — Sent  out  from  Iowa  under  the  claim  that  its  cells 
were  so  arranged  as  to  resist  very  low  temperatures.  Matthew 
Crawford  reports  that  it  made  a  very  poor  growth,  and  produced 
no  fruit.— Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1888. 

Sinclair.—  Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1868,  p.  285. 

Stayman  Early. — Introduced  by  A.  J.  Stayman,  Leavenworth, 
Kansas,  who  speaks  of  it  as  very  early,  of  excellent  quality  and 
productive.  It  has  not  proved  valuable  in  the  eastern  states. 

Taylor  (Taylor's  Prolific).  (Long-cluster  type.)— Introduced 
by  Mr.  Taylor,  of  Spiceland,  Henry  Co. ,  Indiana,  about  1867.  It 
has  peculiar  greenish  yellow,  round  canes,  which  are  somewhat 
slender  and  trailing  in  young  plants.  It  is  very  hardy,  vigorous 
and  productive.  The  fruit  is  large,  roundish -oblong  or  thimble 
shaped,  soft  in  texture,  juicy,  very  mild  and  rich.  It  ripens 
late,  about  two  weeks  after  Snyder.  All  in  all  this  is  one  of 
the  best  varieties  I  have  known.  With  Early  Cluster  to  open, 
and  Taylor  to  close  the  season,  there  is  little  left  to  be  desired 
in  regions  where  these  varieties  succeed. 

Tecumseh  (Long-cluster  group). — A  variety  of  the  Taylor 
type  which  originated  in  Western  Ontario.  It  proved  to  be  less 


232  BUSH-FRUITS 

hardy  than  Taylor  and  not  of  sufficient  value  to  insure  its  con- 
tinuance in  cultivation. 

Texas  Early  (Crandall,  Crandall's  Early). — Said  to  be  large, 
fine  flavored  and  firm,  ripening  two  weeks  earlier  than  Lawton, 
and  less,  seedy.  Has  not  proved  valuable  at  the  North. 

Truman  Thornless. — Received  at  the  office  of  the  United 
States  Pomologist  in  1892,  from  G.  P.  Peffer,  Pewaukee,  Wis- 
consin, and  mentioned  in  the  report  of  that  year,  p.  264.  Said 
to  be  nearly  thornless,  as  hardy  as  Snyder,  earlier  and  better. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  oval,  dull  in  color,  firm,  sweet,  good. 

Wachusett. — Found  growing  wild  on  Monadnock  Mountain,  in 
Massachusetts.  A  slow  grower,  upright  at  first  but  drooping 
later,  spines  few  and  small.  Fruit  clusters  few  and  small  ;  berry 
small,  round,  moderately  firm,  of  good  quality.  The  plant  is 
such  a  shy  bearer  that  it  has  no  practical  value.  This  variety 
was  figured  in  Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  220, 
but  the  drawing  is  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  determine  its 
parentage.  The  leaves  are  peculiarly  wrinkled  at  the  edge,  a 
character  quite  distinct.  It  may  possess  an  admixture  of  Rubus 
Canaderisis  blood. 

Wallace. — Introduced  by  Mr.  Wallace,  of  Wayne  Co.,  Indiana, 
about  1862.  The  plant  is  of  stocky,  upright  growth,  with  broad 
round  leaves  resembling  those  of  Snyder,  ripening  a  week  later, 
hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  as  large  as  Lawton,  of  excellent  flavor. 

Warren. — Fairly  hardy  and  quite  productive.  Berry  about  like 
Snyder  in  quality  and  size.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.,  Vol.  II.,  Bull.  4,  p.  108. 

Wapsle. — An  Iowa  variety,  mentioned  as  on  trial  and  proving 
very  hardy  thus  far.— Kept.  Ohio  Hort.  Soc.  1888:192. 

Washington.—  Raised  by  Prof.  C.  G.  Page,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Fruit  large,  black,  sweet  and  good. — Downing.  Mentioned  as 
new  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  in  1859. 

Weston. — Originated  with  Adrian  Durkes,  of  Weston,  Mo.,  who 
considered  it  more  productive  than  Newman  or  Lawton. — Gar. 
Month.  12:371. 


II.    THE   SHORT-CLUSTER  BLACKBERRIES 
Rubus   nigrobaccuSj   var.  sativus 

This  class  includes  the  commonest  form  of  culti- 
vated blackberry.  It  differs  from  the  other  class 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  fruits  are  shorter  and 


SHORT-CLUSTER    VARIETIES  233 

thicker,  while  the  drupelets  are  larger,  not  so  closely 
packed  nor  so  evenly  arranged,  and  are  more  glossy 
black  in  color.  The  clusters  contain  fewer  fruits, 
these  being  more  closely  crowded  toward  the  top,  and 
borne  on  stems  which  are  more  oblique  and  stouter. 
The  leaflets  are  broader,  not  so  long -pointed,  coarsely 
and  unevenly  serrate  or  even  jagged.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency among  varieties  of  this  class  to  produce  a  few 
late  fruits  on  young  shoots  thrown  up  from  the  root. 
The  form  is  found  wild  in  open,  dryish  places,  mak- 
ing a  low  bush  some  two  or  three  feet  high. 

Agawam. — Found  growing  wild  in  a  pasture  about  1865  or 
1870,  by  John  Perkins,  of  Ipswich,  Mass.  Plant  hardy,  vigorous, 
and  productive.  Fruit  oblong,  of  medium  size,  large,  black,  sweet, 
and  melting  to  the  core,  ripening  early,  or  in  mid- season.  A 
popular  variety,  which  is  not  only  hardy,  but  resists  drought. 

Black  Chief.— On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station.  Received  from  J.  H.  Haynes,  Delphi,  Ind. 

Erie  (Uncle  Tom). — A  seedling  which  came  up  in  a  small 
vineyard  belonging  to  L.  B.  Pierce,  of  Tallmage,  Ohio,  in  1876. 
A  patch  of  Lawton  and  Kittatinny  grew  near  by,  and  it  probably 
came  from  seeds  of  these,  carried  by  birds.  Its  resemblance  to 
the  Lawton  indicates  that  as  its  parentage.  The  variety  was  sold 
to  Matthew  Crawford,  in  1884,  he  in  turn  selling  it  to  J.  T.  Lovett, 
who  offered  it  for  sale  in  1886.  Mr.  Lovett  first  announced  it 
under  the  name  of  Uncle  Tom,  but  this  name  was  so  strongly  ob- 
jected to  by  Marshall  P.  Wilder  that  it  was  dropped,  and  the 
name  Erie  substituted,  which  is  the  only  one  under  which  it  was 
ever  offered  for  sale.  A  strong,  spreading  grower,  very  thorny, 
productive,  but  lacking  in  hardiness  in  some  sections.  Season 
intermediate.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oval,  of  good  quality. 

Ford  No.  1. — On  trial  at  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station. 

Fruitland. — A  new  variety  from  Ohio.  Canes  strong,  upright, 
grooved,  with  greenish  red  bark.  Fruit  medium,  nearly  round, 
with  medium  large  grains,  sweet,  good. — Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  81. 

Kittatinny. — Found  in  the  town  of  Hope,  N.  J.,  near  the  base 
of  the  Kittatinny  Mountains,  and  introduced  by  E.  Williams  about 


234  BUSH-FRUITS 

1865.  Plant  fairly  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  large  to  very 
large,  roundish  conical,  rich  glossy  black,  moderately  firm, 
juicy,  sweet,  and  well  flavored,  ripening  early  and  continu- 
ing long  in  bearing.  Very  susceptible  to  attacks  of  red  rust. 

Lawton  (New  Rochelle,  Seacor's  Mammoth) . — Found  by  Lewis 
A.  Seacor,  in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  and  brought  to  public  notice 
largely  by  William  Lawton,  of  the  same  place,  about  1848.  Vig- 
orous, hardy  and  productive,  with  strong  spines.  Fruit  very  large, 
oval,  and  intensely  black  when  fully  ripe.  It  is  then  juicy,  soft, 
and  sweet,  with  an  excellent  flavor,  but  when  gathered  too  early, 
very  sour  and  insipid.  This  was  the  second  blackberry  introduced 
into  cultivation,  and  it  did  much  to  popularize  the  fruit. 

Lovett. — Described  as  remarkably  hardy,  vigorous  and  produc- 
tive. Fruit  large,  mostly  globular,  drupes  large,  quite  firm, 
though  juicy,  rather  sweet  than  sour.  Not  very  early. 

"  Mersereau.  Originated  with  J.  M.  Mersereau,  Cayuga,  N.  Y. 
It  resembles  the  Snyder,  but  is  larger,  of  better  quality  and  less 
likely  to  turn  red  after  being  picked.  Very  promising. 

Minnewaski. — Originated  and  introduced  by  A.  J.  Caywood,  of 
Marlboro,  N.  Y.  A  good  grower,  erect,  branching,  strong.  Canes 
grooved,  and  thickly  covered  with  long,  straight  spines.  Hardy 
and  productive.  Fruit  clusters  large;  fruit  very  large,  long,  dull 
in  color,  and  somewhat  hairy  in  appearance,  of  fair  quality.  This 
variety  did  well  in  its  original  home,  but  was  often  disappointing 
elsewhere.  There  has  been  much  discussion  over  the  name  of  this 
variety.  The  introducer  insisted  that  it  be  spelled  as  above. 

Sanford. — A  new  variety  received  from  New  York.  Not  yet 
fruited.— Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  17. 

Snyder. — This  is  the  best  known  of  all  blackberries.  What  the 
Baldwin  is  to  the  apple  in  the  Eastern  states  and  the  Ben  Davis 
in  the  West ;  what  the  Concord  is  to  the  grape ;  what  the  Lombard 
is  to  the  plum,  the  Snyder  is  to  the  blackberry.  It  originated 
as  a  chance  seedling,  on  or  near  the  farm  of  Henry  Snyder, 
near  La  Porte,  Ind.,  about  the  year  1851.  It  is  a  vigorous, 
strong,  upright  grower;  very  hardy  and  productive.  Fruit  of  poor 
quality,  medium  size,  nearly  globular,  of  good  appearance  and  a 
good  shipper.  The  berries  have  a  strong  tendency  to  turn  red 
after  picking,  especially  if  exposed  to  sunlight. 

Stone  Hardy. — An  Illinois  variety  of  spreading  habit,  with  its 
fruit  mostly  hidden  beneath  the  foliage.  Hardy,  maturing  its 
Wood  early  on  suitable  soils.  Fruit  rather  small,  roundish,  black, 
soft,  very  juicy,  mild,  and  very  pleasant  in  flavor.  Often  over- 
bears, and  needs  vigorous  pruning. 

Success. — Very  productive,  plants  moderately  vigorous,  canes  of 


LEAFY-CLUSTER    VARIETIES  235 

a  greenish  color,  grooved,  bearing  abundant  prickles.  Berries 
medium  to  large,  roundish,  with  medium  to  large  grains,  good  in 
flavor  and  quality.— Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  81:  582. 

Western  Triumph. — A  chance  seedling  found  upon  the  open 
prairie,  in  Lake  county,  Illinois,  in  1858,  by  Mr.  Biddle,  of 
Muskegon,  111.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  very  abundant,  roundish, 
elongated,  obtuse  in  form,  granules  coarse,  large,  apparently  firm, 
yet  very  rich  and  sweet,  carrying  well,  and  without  any  harshness 
of  core,  like  Lawton.  Leaf  broad  and  thick,  irregularly  and 
coarsely  serrate;  spines  abundant,  stiff  and  strong. — Tilton's  Jour, 
of  Hort.  4:44.  (From  F.  B.  Elliott,  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker.) 
Lacking  in  hardiness,  and  inclined  to  overbear. 

Woodland. — Plants  thrifty,  productive,  with  abundant  small 
prickles.  Fruit  medium  or  above,  roundish,  with  large  to  very 
large  grains;  flavor  and  quality  good. — Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  81:  582. 


III.    THE  LEAFY-CLUSTER  BLACKBERRIES 
Bubus  argutus 

This  was  the  first  type  of  blackberry  to  be  brought 
into  general  cultivation,  since  it  is  to  this  class  that 
the  old  Dorchester  belongs.  The  type  is  characterized 
chiefly  by  the  fact  that  the  leaves  extend  up  the  stem 
into  the  cluster,  there  becoming  small  and  narrow  and 
consisting  of  a  single  leaflet.  The  plant  is  usually 
small  and  upright  in  habit  of  growth.  The  leaflets 
are  rather  small  and  firm,  narrow,  and  coarsely  toothed, 
often  nearly  smooth,  and  persisting  late  in  the  fall. 
The  fruit  is  early,  roundish,  of  medium  or  small  size, 
with  large  grains.  Although  first  in  the  racej,  this 
type  has  not  been  able  to  maintain  the  advantage 
thus  secured.  No  variety  of  the  'class  can  be  said  to 
occupy  a  prominent  position  in  the  blackberry  fields 
of  to-day. 


236  BUSH-FRUITS 

Americus. — Received  at  the  office  of  the  United  States  Pomolo- 
gist  in  1894,  from  J.  H.  Langille,  Kensington,  Md. ,  and  de- 
scribed in  the  report  for  that  year.  Thought  to  be  a  seedling  of 
the  Early  Harvest.  A  stout,  strong  grower,  with  flowers  in  rather 
short,  erect,  downy  spikes.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  irregular, 
oval  or  oblong-conic,  jet  black,  moderately  firm,  melting,  juicy 
and  of  good  quality,  ripening  soon  after  Early  Harvest. 

Boston  High  Bush. — Mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  California 
Horticultural  Society  of  1886,  p.  234.  From  the  connection  it  is 
probably  Dorchester. 

Brunton  Early. — An  early  variety  which  originated  in  Illinois* 
Similar  to  Early  Harvest  in  habit  of  growth.  It  appears  to  be 
deficient  in  pollen  production,  or  self -sterile,  and  unproductive 
when  planted  alone  ;  not  very  hardy.  Of  little  value. 

Dorchester  (Improved  High  Bush). — A  seedling  introduced  by 
Eliphalet  Thayer,  of  Dorchester,  Mass.,  who  first  exhibited  it 
before  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  August  7,  1841. 
It  was  largely  brought  to  public  notice  by  Capt.  Josiah  Lovett,  of 
Beverly,  Mass.  Capt.  Lovett  had  previously  made  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  transplant  the  best  of  the  wild  bushes  to  his  garden, 
but  after  obtaining  this  variety,  turned  his  best  attention  to  it. 
Samuel  Downer,  of  Dorchester,  Mass.,  also  seems  to  have  been 
connected  with  its  introduction.  This  variety  is  of  special 
interest  as  being  the  advance  guard  of  all  the  blackberries  now 
in  cultivation,  since  it  was  the  first  cultivated  variety.  It  is  a 
very  upright  grower,  vigorous,  and  viciously  thorny.  Indeed, 
its  strong  recurved  thorns  remind  one  of  the  Sand  Blackberry, 
(Rubus  cuneifolius).  Fruit  large,  oblong,  conic,  deep,  shining 
black,  nearly  as  large  as  Lawton;  longer,  with  rather  smaller 
drupelets.  It  may  be  an  admixture  between  the  argutus  and 
nigrobaccus  types. 

Early  Harvest.— An  early  variety,  found  growing  wild  in  Illi- 
nois. A  moderately  vigorous,  upright  grower,  fairly  hardy, 
though  often  quite  tender.  Canes  greenish,  with  comparatively 
few  thorns.  Fruit  small,  roundish  to  oblong,  greenish  black,  soft 
in  texture,  juicy,  mild  and  pleasant.  Very  early,  prolific,  and 
valuable  where  it  succeeds,  owing  to  its  season. 

King  (Early  King). — Plant  rather  small,  erect,  stiff,  with 
several  small  canes  from  each  stool,  making  a  thick  clump ; 
spines  large.  Berry  of  medium  size,  oval,  irregular,  of  best 
quality;  core  soft,  ripe  as  soon  as  black.  A  week  earlier  than 
Snyder,  fairly  productive,  and  of  medium  hardiness.  Too  soft 
for  market. 

See  Early. — So  much  like  Brunton 's  Early  that  it  may  be 
the  same.— 111.  Hort.  Soc.  1878:125. 


WHITE    VARIETIES  237 

IV.    THE   WHITE  BLACKBERRIES 
Rubus  nigrobaccus,  var.  albinus 

Although  not  an  important  class  commercially, 
many  varieties  of  this  type  have  been  introduced.  As 
the  name  indicates,  the  chief  distinguishing  character 
is  the  color  of  the  fruit,  which  is  pinkish  cream  or 
amber  colored.  The  canes  are  round,  yellowish  green, 
and  the  leaflets  are  mostly  three,  even  on  the  young 
canes.  Otherwise  it  is  like  the  Long -cluster  type. 

Adair  Claret. — Originated  with  D.  S.  Adair,  Hawesville,  Ky. 
Plant  not  quite  hardy.  Fruit  medium  size,  claret  color,  soft, 
with  a  mild,  pleasant  flavor  —Downing. 

Albion. — A  wilding  found  and  introduced  by  John  B.  Orange, 
of  Albion,  111.  Described  as  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit 
large,  oblong,  clear  pink,  sweet  and  good.  Downing,  however, 
reported  it  unproductive,  of  only  fair  size,  imperfect,  and  with- 
out flavor. 

Alger. — Originated  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Of  good  size,  oblong 
in  form.  Of  a  deep  claret  color  ;  sweet  and  rich. 

Colonel  Wilder. — Introduced  by  John  B.  Orange,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Marshall  P.  Wilder.  Described  as  very  productive, 
of  a  bright  cream  color,  large  size,  oblong,  almost  pointed,  of 
superior  flavor  and  quality.  Mr.  Orange  regarded  this  as  the  most 
valuable  of  his  white  varieties. — Hov.  Mag.  1864:360. 

Crystal  White  (Orange's  Crystal). — Originated  and  introduced 
by  John  B.  Orange.  A  vigorous,  upright  grower,  with  strong, 
green  spines,  lacking  in  hardiness,  and  suckering  freely.  Fruit 
large,  roundish  oval,  a  clear,  rich  white  when  fully  ripe,  sweet, 
of  good  flavor,  ripening  early,  but,  like  the  other  white  varieties, 
of  no  value  except  as  a  curiosity.  It  was  claimed  by  the  origi- 
nator to  be  very  productive  when  grown  near  other  varieties,  but 
to  be  unproductive  when  grown  alone. 

Doctor  Warder. — Originated  and  introduced  by  John  B. 
Orange.  Fruit  rather  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  Albion.  Nearly 
as  large,  color  dark  ruddy  red,  quality  good. 

Kentucky  White—  Introduced  by  D.  S.  Adair,  Hawesville,  Ky. 
Plant  tender  ;  fruit  medium  size,  oblong,  oval,  light  dirty  white, 
imperfect.  — Downing. 


238  BUSH-FRUITS 

Needham  White. — Introduced  to  notice  by  J.  Shed  Needham, 
of  Massachusetts,  sometime  about  1850.  Described  as  of  lilac 
color,  similar  to  the  black  varieties  in  shape,  though  not  quite 
so  large.  Of  good  flavor.  Canes  light  green  and  thickly  covered 
with  short,  stiff,  green  hairs.  Though  said  to  be  immensely  pro- 
ductive, Fuller  later  speaks  of  it  as  unproductive  and  not  worth 
cultivating.  Mentioned  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Ohio  Hort. 
Soc.  for  1869,  p.  69,  as  of  little  value. 

Parish  Pink. — Another  white  variety  of  no  more  value  than 
the  rest. 

Texas  Hybrid  (Texas  Pink  Hybrid). — Described  as  vigorous 
and  prolific,  earlier  than  Snyder,  of  medium  size,  delicate  pink 
color,  sweet  and  nearly  free  from  seed.  Found  to  be  of  no 
value  in  Ohio. 

V.     THE   LOOSE -CLUSTER  BLACKBERRIES 
Eubus  nigroboccus  X  villosus 

These  are  hybrids  between  the  blackberry  and  the 
common  dewberry  of  the  eastern  states.  Their  dis- 
tinguishing feature  is  to  be  found  in  the  intermediate 
character  between  the  two  parents.  The  bushes  are 
low  and  more  or  less  reclining,  the  leaflets  are  broad 
and  jagged,  usually  three,  both  on  young  shoots  and 
bearing  canes.  The  fruit  is  short  and  roundish, 
borne  in  few-  to  many -flowered  clusters,  interspersed 
with  numerous  simple  broad  leaves.  The  type  is  com- 
mon in  the  wild  state  where  the  two  species  are  found 
growing  together. 

Eureka. — In  1876  William  Parry  selected  the  best  and  most 
perfect  berries  of  Wilson's  Early,  grown  by  the  side  of  the  Dor- 
chester, planted  them,  grew  the  seedlings  together  for  four  years, 
then  selected  the  best,  which  was  named  Eureka,  the  others  being 
destroyed.— Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Eept.  1886:  407. 

Mammoth  (Thompson's  Early  Mammoth). — Said  to  be  like  the 
Wilson  in  size  and  general  habit  of  growth,  a  few  days  earlier, 
and  of  rather  better  quality,  large  and  good.  Others  pronounce 
it  no  improvement  over  the  Wilson. 


LOOSE-CLUSTER    VARIETIES  239 

Maynard. — A  variety  found  growing  on  the  farm  of  C.  C.  May- 
nard, at  Kincaid,  Kans.,  between  the  Lucretia  dewberry  and  the 
Early  Harvest  blackberry,  and  sent  out  for  trial  by  him  as  the 
Maynard  dewberry.  Berry  round,  composed  of  a  few  very  large, 
jet  black  drupelets,  ripening  with  the  blackberries ;  many  berries 
in  a  cluster.  Claimed  to  be  large,  sweet  and  productive,  succeed- 
ing better  on  poor  than  on  rich  soil.  At  the  Nebraska  Experiment 
Station  the  fruit  has  so  far  been  too  small  to  be  of  value. 

Newman  Thornless. — Discovered  by  Joseph  Newman,  Ulster 
county,  New  York.  Canes  of  moderate  growth,  and  thornless. 
Fruit  rather  large,  oval,  of  very  good  flavor.  According  to  one 
grower,  it  produces  few  thorns  and  fewer  berries.  It  is  placed  in 
this  class  on  the  statement  of  the  Gardener's  Monthly,  Vol.  II, 
p.  281,  that  it  belongs  to  the  dewberry  section.  Perhaps  it  is  a 
true  dewberry. 

Rathbun.—Sent  out  by  A.  F.  Eathbun,  of  Smith's  Mills,  N.  Y. 
Said  to  be  a  good  grower,  hardy,  of  large  size,  fine  flavor,  juicy, 
and  attractive. 

Sterling  Thornless. — A  chance  seedling,  found  on  the  farm  of 
John  F.  Sterling,  Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  in  a  field  where  Wilson 
and  Lawton  had  been  growing.  The  canes  resemble  those  of 
Wilson  in  size,  shape,  and  color,  but  are  comparatively  thornless. 
The  fruit  is  borne  in  cymose  clusters,  with  long  pedicels,  like  the 
dewberries.  Size  medium  to  large,  round,  oblong;  possessed  of 
large,  rather  loosely  set,  round  drupes.  Moderately  firm,  juicy, 
and  sweet,  with  a  trace  of  dewberry  flavor. 

Wilson  (Wilson's  Early). — This  variety  was  discovered  by  John 
Wilson,  of  Burlington,  N.  J.,  about  1854.  The  bush  partakes  of 
the  habit  of  both  the  low  and  the  high  blackberry,  some  of  the 
shoots  being  erect  and  branching,  like  the  Lawton,  and  others 
without  branches,  slender,  and  trailing  on  the  ground  like  the  low 
blackberry,  and  indicating  a  hybrid  between  that  and  the  high 
bush  species.  The  trailing  shoots  sometimes  take  root  at  the 
tips.  Wood  downy.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  good  specimens 
measuring  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length  by  about  an  inch  in 
breadth,  while  the  largest  are  an  inch  and  a  half  long.  Firm, 
somewhat  irregular,  tapering  toward  the  apex  ;  grains  mostly 
large,  but  with  some  small  ones  mixed  in.  Flavor  quite  acid 
until  ripe,  when  it  is  rich  and  sprightly. — Tilton's  Journal  of 
Horticulture,  1869:  284.  Has  been  a  popular  variety  in  New 
Jersey.  It  demands  close  pruning  in  order  to  prevent  overbear- 
ing, and  must  be  covered  for  winter  protection  in  most  sections. 

Wilson  Junior. — William  Parry,  in  1870,  selected  plants  of 
Dorchester  and  Wilson  and  planted  them  together,  far  away  from 
any  others  to  mix  with,  trusting  that  the  pollen  of  one  kind  might, 


240  BUSH-FRUITS 

perhaps,  mix  with  the  other.  In  1875  he  selected  some  of  the 
best  Wilson  varieties  for  seed.  After  watching  the  other  seedlings 
tot  four  vears,  the  largest  and  best  was  selected,  and  this  is 
Wilson  Junior.— Gar.  Month.  27:  208.  The  plant  is  so  like  its 
parent,  the  Wilson,  as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  it. 


VI.    THE   SAND  BLACKBERRY 
Bubus  cuneifolius 

This  is  the  species  which  grows  in  sandy  land  in 
the  southern  Atlantic  states.  It  is  very  little  known  in 
cultivation,  and  there  is  little  to  induce  its  introduction, 
for  its  formidable  thorns  brook  no  unwarranted  fa- 
miliarity. It  is  a  low,  stocky  plant,  with  somewhat 
wedge-shaped  leaves,  which  are  more  or  less  downy 
beneath.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  loose,  leafy  clusters, 
being  round,  loose -grained,  very  black  and  of  excellent 
quality. 

Topsy  (Childs's  Tree  Blackberry). — Canes  stout,  upright  and 
viciously  thorny,  but  not  hardy;  fruit  large,  late,  soft,  of  good, 
but  not  high  quality.  Of  no  real  value  in  cultivation. 

RECOMMENDED   VARIETIES  OF  BLACKBERRIES 

Few  varieties  in  the  preceding  lists  are  of  particular 
interest  to  the  commercial  grower.  Many  have  long 
since  passed  out  of  cultivation,  while  others  are  yet 
too  new  to  be  depended  upon.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant are  Agawam,  Ancient  Briton,  Snyder  and 
Taylor,  with  Early  Cluster  and  Early  Harvest  for  early 
varieties,  though  both  of  these  are  to  be  received  with 
caution  unless  known  to  succeed  in  the  locality.  Other 
varieties,  to  be  sure,  are  valuable,  especially  in  certain 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE    DEWBERRIES  241 

regions,  as  the  Dallas  in  Texas,  'the  Wilson  in  New 
Jersey  and  the  Minnewaski  in  limited  areas  of  New 
York. 

B.      THE    DEWBERRIES 

Like  their  near  relatives,  the  blackberries,  the  dew- 
berries are  exceedingly  variable  in  character,  and  many 
different  forms  are -found,  both  wild  and  in  cultivation. 
At  least  four  different  species  of  the  genus  Rubus  are 
commonly  known  as  dewberries,  three  of  which, 
together  with  several  botanical  varieties,  are  found 
in  cultivation.  Most  of  the  cultivated  varieties  be- 
long to  the  common  eastern  species,  Rubus  villosus 
(Rubus  Canadensis  of  writers),  or  some  of  its  bo- 
tanical varieties,  though  in  the  Pacific  states  varie- 
ties of  the  Coast  dewberry,  Rubus  vitifolms,  are  more 
common. 

The  dewberries  are  distinguished  from  the  blackber- 
ries chiefly  by  their  trailing  habit  of  growth,  their 
early  ripening,  the  character  of  the  flower  cluster,  and 
the  method  of  propagation.  The  true  dewberries  bear 
but  few  flowers  in  each  cluster,  the  clusters  are  cymose, 
the  center  flower  opening  first,  and  the  flowers  are  few 
and  scattered,  generally  borne  on  long  and  ascending 
pedicels,  or  stems,  which  tend  to  raise  both  flowers 
and  fruit  well  toward  the  end  of  the  shoot.  In  the 
blackberries  the  opposite  of  these  characters  is  found. 
The  clusters  are  corymbose  or  racemose,  the  outer  flow- 
ers generally  opening  first,  and  the  flowers  are  borne 
in  rather  dense  clusters,  the  pedicels  being  shorter,  as 
a  rule,  and  standing  more  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 


242  BUSH-FRUITS 

t 

main  stem  of  the  cluster.  The  dewberries  propagate 
by  means  of  tips,  while  the  blackberries  propagate  by 
suckers,  a  point  of  much  practical  importance,  in  cul- 
tivation, at  least.  Despite  these  characters,  there  are 
forms  found,  both  wild  and  in  cultivation,  which  are  so 
intermediate  in  character  as  to  make  it  a  matter  of 
considerable  doubt  as  to  whether  they  should  be  called 
blackberries,  dewberries  or  hybrids.  These  intermedi- 
ate forms  are  of  special  interest,  and  illustrate  in  a 
remarkable  way  the  possibilities  of  admixture  in  the 
genus.  Many  of  them  are  very  productive,  in  apparent 
defiance  of  the  pronouncements  of  science,  which  are 
that  hybrids  should  be  deficient  in  fruitfulness. 

Of  the  four  species  commonly  known  as  dewberries, 
Rubus  hispidus,  generally  known  as  the  running 
swamp  blackberry,  although  sometimes  found  on  dry, 
sandy  ground  also,  may  first  be  mentioned.  It  is  a 
delicate  little  plant,  running  on  the  ground,  bearing 
stiff,  shining  leaves,  which  frequently  remain  green  all 
winter.  The  flowers  are  few  and  small,  and  the  fruit  of 
little  or  no  value.  It  is  simply  as  a  wild  form  that  we 
need  consider  it,  since  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for 
attempting  to  cultivate  it. 

The  most  important  species,  from  a  horticultural 
standpoint,  is  Rubus  villosus  (but  universally  known  as 
Rubus  Canadensis) ,  or  the  Northern  dewberry,  since  it 
is  from  this  species  and  its  botanical  varieties  that  most 
of  our  cultivated  sorts  have  come.  This  is  the  spe- 
cies which  most  nearly  approaches  the  common  black- 
berry in  character  of  plant  and  fruit.  Hybrids  between 
the  two  are  common  in  regions  where  both  abound. 


DEWBERRY    TYPES  243 

The  specific  type  of  Eubus  villosus  is  represented  in 
cultivation  by  Windom,  Geer  and  Lucretia's  Sister. 
The  sub- type  known  as  variety  roribaccus  is  repre- 
sented by  Lucretia ;  the  type  designated  as  Eubus 
invisus  by  Bartel,  General  Grant  and  Never  Fail. 

Eubus  trivialis,  or  the  Southern  dewberry,  is  some- 
what similar  to  Eubus  villosus  (E.  CanadensisJ,  but 
distinguished  from  it  by  having  the  main  canes  thickly 
beset  with  stout  prickles,  which  are  sometimes  dark 
purple  in  color.  The  leaves  are  firm,  smooth  and  prac- 
tically evergreen,  usually  bearing  stout  prickles  on  the 
petioles  and  midribs.  It  is  common  throughout  the 
southern  states,  and  often  very  productive,  bearing  at- 
tractive and  desirable  fruit.  Several  varieties  belonging 
to  this  species  have  been  introduced  into  cultivation, 
among  which  are  Manatee,  Bauer,  and  Wilson's  White. 
None  of  these  have  become  prominent. 

Eubus  vitifolius,  or  the  Western  dewberry,  which  is 
the  dewberry  of  the  Pacific  slope,  is  a  very  peculiar 
species,  bearing  some  slight  resemblance  to  Eubus  vil- 
losus (E.  CanadensisJ ,  especially  in  the  young  growth. 
The  canes  are  long  and  slender,  however,  and  the 
fruiting  branches  entirely  different,  the  leaflets  being 
broad,  coarsely  toothed,  light  green  and  pubescent 
both  above  and  beneath,  while  the  other  parts  are  more 
or  less  densely  covered  with  straight  bristles  and  glan- 
dular tipped  hairs.  As  explained  in  the  botanical  sec- 
tion, this  is  an  exceedingly  variable  species,  and  many 
forms  are  likely  to  appear  should  it  become  prominent 
in  cultivation.  The  varieties  known  as  Aughinbaugh, 
Washington  Belle,  and  Skagit  Chief  belong  here.  One 


244  BUSH-FRUITS 

of  the  obstacles  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  this 
species  is  the  variable  sexual  character  of  its  blos- 
soms. If  pistillate  varieties  are  introduced,  they 
must  of  necessity  be  planted  with  perfect  or  staminate 
plants  to  insure  fruit  production.  It  is  doubtful,  also, 
whether  even  the  perfect -flowered  sorts  would  prove 
fully  self -fertile  in  a  species  with  such  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  separate  sexual  development.  Until  these 
points  are  more  fully  determined,  it  appears  to  be  a 
wise  precaution,  if  this  species  is  to  be  planted  at  all, 
to  plant  more  than  one  variety  together. 

VII.    THE  NORTHERN  DEWBERRIES 
Eubus  invisus,  E.  villosus  and  Varieties* 

Bartel  (Eubus  invisus). — This  was  the  first  named  variety  of 
dewberry.  It  was  brought  to  notice  sometime  in  the  70's  by 
Dr.  Bartel,  of  Huey,  Clinton  county,  111.  The  plants  are  said 
to  have  appeared  in  an  old  cornfield  on  his  farm,  and  the  large 
size  of  the  fruit  led  him  to  offer  them  for  sale.  The  fruit  is 
described  as  large,  rich,  juicy,  slightly  acid,  but  not  so  sour  as 
the  blackberry,  and  sufficiently  solid  to  bear  shipping  well. 

Colossal. — A  sort  offered  by  L.  L.  May  &  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Geer  (Eubus  villosus). — A  variety  discovered  by  F.  L.  Wright, 
in  a  wood-lot  belonging  to  a  Mrs.  Geer,  of  Plainfield,  Living- 
ston Co.,  Michigan.  It  was  first  brought  under  cultivation  in 
1887.  Said  to  be  productive,  though  small  in  fruit. 

General  Grant  (Eubus  invisus). — Introduced  by  Charles  A. 
Green,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1885  or  1886.  It  came  from  M. 
W.  Broyles,  somewhere  in  Tennessee.  It  possessed  little  value, 
and  never  became  prominent. 

Latimer  Seedling. — Mentioned  as  on  trial  at  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y. )  Experiment  Station.  Received  from  J.  W.  Latimer, 
Pleasanton,  Kansas. 

*A  full  account  of  the  eastern  dewberries  is  given  by  Bailey  in  Bulletin  34 
of  the  Cornell  University  Experimental  Station,  which  is  freely  drawn  upon  in 
making  up  the  following  list. 


NORTHERN   DEWBERRY     VARIETIES  245 

Lucretia  (Eubus  villosus  var.  roribaccus). — This  is  the  best 
known  of  all  the  dewberries.  Found  by  a  soldier  in  the  Civil  War, 
who,  being  stationed  near  Beverly,  W.  Va.,  "during  most  of  his 
service,  returned  there  after  the  war  in  search  of  a  wife,  and 
acquired  this  dewberry  as  a  perquisite  to  the  plantation  owned  by 
her.  He  transplanted  some  to  his  garden,  and  later  sent  plants 
to  his  father  in  Ohio.  These  fell  into  the  hands  of  B.  F. 
Albaugh,  of  Covington,  Ohio,  who  named  the  variety  and  intro- 
duced it  to  the  trade.  As  sent  out,  this  variety  has  been  greatly 
mixed,  but  the  true  type  is  a  large  fruit,  productive,  of  good 
quality,  and  gives  satisfaction  wherever  the  dewberry  succeeds. 

Lucretia' s  Sister  (Eubus  villosus. )— Introduced  by  J.  B.  Treed- 
way,  of  Brandt,  Ohio,  about  1886.  Seems  to  possess  little  value. 

Mammoth.  —  Two  varieties  appear  to  have  been  sold  under 
this  name,  one  being  Eubus  invisus  and  the  other  Eubus  villosus. 
The  former  Professor  Bailey  considers  to  be  the  same  as  Bartel. 
The  other  he  has  been  unable  to  trace. — Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  34:  306. 

Hayes  (Mayes  Hybrid,  Austin's  Improved). — (Eubus  villosus 
var.  roribaccus  [?]). — Found  growing  wild  in  Texas,  on  the  farm 
of  John  Mayes,  some  time  about  1880,  mingled  with  both  the 
native  Texan,  now  called  Dallas,  and  the  common  dewberry, 
Eubus  trivialis,  and  thought  to  have  been  a  hybrid  between  the 
two.  This  account  of  its  origin  would  indicate  that  it  belongs 
among  the  southern  dewberries,  but  herbarium  specimens  seem 
to  agree  much  more  closely  with  the  Lucretia  type,  and  I  there- 
fore place  it  there  provisionally.  Mr.  Mayes  began  cultivating 
the  variety,  and  found  it  to  improve  under  cultivation.  Later 
it  was  sent  out  by  J.  W.  Austin,  of  Pilot  Point,  Texas,  as 
Austin's  Improved.  The  plant  is  trailing  in  habit  when  young, 
but  is  said  to  become  stronger  and  somewhat  upright  with  age. 
It  propagates  by  tips  or  root -cuttings.  The  fruit  is  very  large, 
of  fine  appearance,  and  the  plants  are  prolific.  Young  plants 
at  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  were  much  more  promising 
than  those  of  Lucretia.  Unfortunately  these  were  destroyed  by 
the  erection  of  a  building  in  midsummer,  so  thaj:  their  further 
behavior  cannot  be  reported  upon.  It  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
most  promising  varieties  now  grown. 

Never  Fail  (Eubus  invisus). — A  variety  mentioned  by  Bailey 
(1.  c.)  as  known  to  him  only  from  a  specimen  and  notes  received 
from  F.  L.  Wright,  Plainville,  Mich.,  who  obtained  it  from 
central  Indiana,  though  it  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
central  Ohio.  Mr.  Wright's  statement  regarding  its  qualities 
is  that  "it  never  fails  to  produce  an  abundance  of  wood,  but 
always  fails  to  produce  fruit.  I  never  had  a  perfect  berry." 


246  BUSH-FRUITS 

Sanford. — A  new  variety  mentioned  as  on  trial  at  Geneva 
N.  Y.— Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  81:  585. 

Window,  (Cook's  Hardy),  (Rubus  villosus). — This  variety  was 
first  brought  to  public  notice  in  1887  by  the  Seedling  Commis- 
sion of  the  Minnesota  State  Horticultural  Society.  It  was  dis- 
covered and  brought  into  cultivation  by  Dewain  Cook,  of  that 
state,  who  found  it  to  be  hardy,  productive,  of  fair  size,  and 
good  flavor. 


VIII.    THE   SOUTHERN   DEWBERRIES 
Rubus    trivialis 

Bauer. — A  variety  sent  out  from  Bauer's  nursery,  Judsonia, 
Ark.  It  was  said  to  be  a  vigorous  grower,  with  fine  fruit,  but 
apparently  unproductive. 

Fairfax. — Bailey  refers  this  variety  doubtfully  to  this  group. 
It  was  sent  out  by  C.  A.  Uber,  of  Fairfax  county,  Virginia,  who 
found  it  wild  on  a  stony,  unproductive  hillside  in  that  county. 
There  the  vine  was  vigorous  but  not  rampant,  and  the  berry  large 
and  fine  flavored,  but  when  transferred  to  garden  soil  it  developed 
excessive  growth,  with  but  few  and  imperfect  berries,  notwith- 
standing its  proximity  to  a  number  of  varieties  of  blackberries, 
which  might  have  been  expected  to  furnish  sufficient  pollen. 

Manatee. — Introduced  by  Reasoner  Brothers,  Oneco,  Fla.,  in 
1889.  They  report  it  to  be  only  a  selected  strain  of  Rubus  trivi- 
alis, but  say  that  it  succeeds  much  better  in  that  state  than  any 
other  variety,  having  proved  very  productive,  ripening  its  fruit  in 
April,  and  being  a  good  shipper.  It  is  also  reported  as  succeeding 
in  California. 

White  Dewberry. — White  dewberries  appear  to  be  well  known 
in  Texas.  One  is  mentioned  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1877, 
p.  174,  as  being  known  among  the  horticulturists  of  that  state. 
What  is  very  likely  the  same  thing  was  received  from  Colorado 
county,  of  that*  state,  and  introduced  by  Samuel  Wilson,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1890,  under  the  name  Mammoth  White,  or  Wilson's 
White.  The  natural  inference  is  that  the  Albino  White  of  Parry 
and  the  Crystal  White  of  Childs  belong  to  the  same  type,  and, 
perhaps,  have  come  from  the  same  source,  though  I  have  no  proof 
of  this.  The  variety  introduced  by  Mr.  Wilson  is  said  by  him  to 
be  hardy  in  Pennsylvania,  productive,  of  large  size  and  excellent 
quality. 


WESTERN   DEWBERRY    VARIETIES  247 

IX.     THE  WESTERN  DEWBERRIES 
Rubus 


Aughinbaugh. — This  is  one  of  the  best  known  varieties  of  the 
Western  dewberry,  and  is  especially  noteworthy  as  being  the  pa- 
rent of  the  Loganberry  which  has  attracted  so  much  attention  of 
late.  It  was  propagated  and  sold  by  a  man  named  Aughinbaugh, 
about  1875.  The  blossoms  are  pistillate,  which  means  that  it 
should  be  planted  with  other  varieties  to  furnish  pollen.  The  fruit 
is  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality,  but  the  plant  is  a  weak  grower 
and  unproductive. 

Humboldt.—A  writer  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker  for  1896,  p. 
574,  mentions  this  as  having  been  selected  from  the  wild  black- 
berry of  California,  and  describes  it  as  a  rampant  grower  and 
abundant  bearer,  ripening  with  Hansell  raspberry,  a  month  before 
the  Early  Harvest  blackberry.  Fruit  jet  black,  one  and  one-half 
inches  long  by  one  inch  thick,  in  selected  specimens.  Flavor 
"marvelous,  delightfully  spicy,  with  a  wild-wood  aroma." 

Loganberry  (Rubus  vitifolius  X  Idceus  [?]  ). — This  berry  orig- 
inated on  the  grounds  of  Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz, 
California,  in  1882,  from  seed  planted  by  him  the  preceding  year. 
A  full  account  of  its  origin,  as  given  by  Judge  Logan  himself, 
appears  in  Bulletin  45  of  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 
It  seems  that  he  had  for  some  time  been  interested  in  raspber- 
ries and  blackberries,  and  had  growing  together  the  Texas  Early 
blackberry,  the  Aughinbaugh  dewberry,  and  an  old  but  unknown 
variety  of  red  raspberry,  resembling  the  Red  Antwerp.  In  August 
of  1881  he  planted  seeds  of  the  Aughinbaugh,  expecting  to  get  a 
cross  between  it  and  the  Texas  Early.  He  raised  about  fifty 
seedlings.  One  of  these,  the  Loganberry,  was  very  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  parent,  but  much  larger  and  a  stronger  grower. 
At  the  time  the  seed  was  sown  Judge  Logan  did  not  think  it  pos- 
sible to  cross  the  Aughinbaugh  with  the  raspberry,  but  the  char- 
acters developed  by  this  seedling  have  convinced  him  that  it  is 
almost  certainly  a  hybrid  between  them.  One  remarkable  fact 
stated  by  him  is  that  out  of  thousands  of  plants  grown  from  seeds 
of  this  variety,  not  one  has  ever  shown,  so  far  as  he  is  aware, 
any  of  the  distinct  characteristics  of  either  parent,  not  one  has 
gone  back  to  the  original  type  of  either  the  raspberry  or  the 
Aughinbaugh,  though  most  of  them  are  inferior  to  the  original 
plant.  He  also  states  that  he  has  never  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
Loganberry  with  either  of  its  parents,  nor  with  seedling  crosses 
between  the  Aughinbaugh  and  the  Texas  blackberry,  Fig.  31  is 
used,  by  permission,  from  Bull.  45  of  the  R.  I.  Exp.  Sta. 


248 


BUSH-FRUITS 


In  the  characters  of  the  plant,  and  in  the  shape  and  conforma- 
tion of  the  fruit  the  variety  is  essentially  like  the  Aughinbaugh, 
propagating  entirely  by  tips,  though  by  artificial  methods  they 
may  be  grown  from  hard  wood  cuttings.  The  core  remains  with 
the  jfruit,  like  the  blackberry,  its  principal  resemblance  to  the 


Fig.  31.    The  Loganberry. 

raspberry  being  in  color  and  flavor,  although  the  dewberry  dom- 
inates in  flavor.  Judge  Logan  says :  "  As  to  the  fact  of  the  plant 
being  a  hybrid  between  the  blackberry  and  the  raspberry,  of 
course  there  is  no  absolute  proof.  The  color,  with  the  distinct 
raspberry  flavor  of  the  fruit,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
originated,  I  think  render  the  fact  of  such  a  cross  almost  cer- 
tain." 

The  other  plants  in  this  lot  of  seedlings  Judge  Logan  thinks  to 
have  been  crosses  between  the  Aughinbaugh  and  the  Texas,  as  he 


WESTERN   DEWBERRY     VARIETIES  249 

expected,  though  they  resemble  the  Aughinbaugh  in  most  of  their 
characteristics.  These  he  also  considers  valuable,  the  fruit  ripen- 
ing early,  being  shining  black  and  very  long,  some  specimens 
having  measured  as  much  as  two  and  one -fourth  inches.  The 
Loganberry  appears  to  promise  well  in  the  Eastern  states.  In 
Rhode  Island  it  passed  the  winter  perfectly  when  covered,  though 
those  left  uncovered  were  killed.  The  fruit  ripened  with  the 
raspberry  and,  while  not  high  flavored,  was  improved  by  cooking, 
and  made  a  desirable  sauce.  The  plant  propagates  slowly. 

Mammoth. — The  American  Agriculturist,  1897,  p.  494,  prints  a 
picture  of  this  fruit,  natural  size,  in  which  individual  berries  are 
two  and  one-fourth  inches  long  and  about  an  inch  wide;  and  it 
has  the  following  account:  "The  Mammoth  blackberry  was  orig- 
inated by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  the  originator  of  the  now  famous 
Loganberry,  descriptions  and  illustrations  of  which  have  appeared 
in  former  numbers  of  this  journal.  Judge  Logan  informs  us  that 
the  Mammoth  is  a  cross  between  the  wild  blackberry  of  California 
(Rubus  ursinus)*  and  the  Texas  Early,  the  former  a  species  of  the 
dewberry  type,  while  the  latter  has  more  the  shrubby  habit  of  the 
high  blackberry.  The  most  remarkable  feature  about  this  new 
blackberry  is  that  while  the  fruits  of  both  parents  are  below 
medium  in  size,  a  cross  between  the  two  should  produce  berries  of 
the  largest  size,  specimens  measuring  two  and  three-eighths  inches 
in  length  being  not  unusual.  When  fully  ripe,  the  berries  are 
sweet  and  of  excellent  flavor,  and  for  cooking  or  canning  they  are 
unrivaled.  Unlike  the  high  blackberry,  the  Mammoth  does  not 
throw  up  sprouts  from  its  roots,  and  cannot  be  propagated  from 
root -cuttings.  Instead,  its  canes  run  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
feet  in  one  season,  and  strike  roots  at  their  ends  or  tips,  like 
Black- cap  raspberries.  So  far  this  interesting  novelty  has  not 
been  sufficiently  tried  outside  of  its  original  locality  to  establish 
its  value  for  general  cultivation,  the  results  of  which  are  eagerly 
looked  for  by  progressive  fruit-growers." 

Primus. — A  variety  produced  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa 
Rosa,  California,  and  said  by  him  to  be  a  cross  between  Rubus 
vitifolius  and  R.  cratcegifolius.  The  plant  is  said  to  be  a  strong 
grower  and  productive,  having  in  part  the  trailing  habit  of  the 
pistillate  parent.  It  is  thickly  covered  with  short,  blunt  prickles, 
and  propagates  by  tips,  though  with  some  difficulty.  Fruit  large, 
long,  blunt,  conical  or  oval,  juicy,  subacid,  aromatic,  resembling 
the  raspberry  in  flavor,  adhering  to  the  core  and  ripening  with  the 
Hansell  raspberry.  A  colored  plate,  together  with  a  description, 
appears  in  the  report  of  the  United  States  Pomologist  for  1892. 


*R.  mttfolius. 


250  B  USH-FR  UITS 

Skagit  Chief. — A  variety  sent  out  from  the  state  of  Washing- 
ton in  1891. 

Washington  Belle. — Sent  out  from  the  state  of  Washington  with 
the  Skagit  Chief.  Neither  variety  appears  to  have  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  Eastern  states.  As  observed  by  the  writer  at 
Cornell,  while  the  plants  were  still  young  they  appeared  to  pos- 
sess the  imperfect  blossoms  characteristic  of  this  species  in  many 
cases,  which  would  naturally  tend  to  interfere  with  their  success. 


RECOMMENDED   VARIETIES  OF   DEWBERRIES 

Apparently  but  three  varieties  need  be  mentioned 
here,  the  Lucretia  for  the  Eastern  states,  the  Mayes  for 
the  West  and  Southwest,  and  the  Loganberry  for  the 
Pacific  Coast.  How  far  these  will  succeed  in  the  other 
regions  it  is  yet  impossible  to  say.  The  Bartel  is  also 
successfully  grown  by  some  persons  in  Wisconsin  and 
Iowa. 


CHAPTER    IX 

INSECTS    AFFECTING    THE    BRAMBLES 

The  insects  attacking  the  genus  Rubus  are  many, 
and  to  attempt  to  adequately  discuss  them  all  would 
far  exceed  the  limits  of  space  which  can  profitably  be 
allotted  to  the  subject.  Nevertheless,  it  seems  wise  to 
list,  in  so  far  as  possible,  all  which  are  known  to  attack 
plants  of  the  genus  in  any  way,  and  to  give  a  few  of 
the  more  important  and  most  easily  accessible  refer- 
ences to  literature  on  the  subject  as  an  aid  to  those 
who  may  have  occasion  to  study  any  of  the  species 
mentioned.  To  make  original  observations  concerning 
any  considerable  number  of  these  species  would  have 
been  impossible  even  for  an  entomologist.  In  the  case 
of  those  species  considered  really  injurious,  the  aim 
has  been  to  collect  and  present  in  condensed  and  con- 
venient form  the  more  important  facts  already  known 
about  them,  together  with  the  methods  which  at  pres- 
ent seem  most  feasible  for  combating  them.  WhHc 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  brief  statements  will, 
in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  aid  the  busy  man  who 
must  meet  the  insect  and  meet  it  at  once,  the  refer- 
ences will  doubtless  prove  far  more  helpful  to  any 
who  may  wish  to  make  a  more  careful  study  of  the 
subject.  Original  illustrations  of  the  species  of  great- 
est economic  importance  are  added.  These  are  drawn 

(251) 


252  B  USH-FR  UIT8 

and  engraved  on  wood  from   the   insects  themselves, 
by  Anna  Botsford  Comstock. 

THE    MORE    IMPORTANT    INSECTS 

THE   SNOWY    TREE -CRICKET 
(Ecanthus  niveus,  Serv.*— Order  Orthoptera:     Family  Gryllidre 

Saunders,  Insects  Inj.  to  Fruits.  308. 

French,  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:199. 

Comstock  and  Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  23:124. 

Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:206. 

The  work  of  this  insect  is  well  known,  and  it  has  been 
frequently  mentioned,  both  in  entomological  and  horticultural 
literature.  The  insect  is  a  delicate,  greenish  white  cricket,  with 
broad  and  transparent  wing-covers,  through  which  the  folded 
wings  can  be  seen.  These  wing- covers  are  crossed  by  oblique 
thickenings,  or  ribs,  part  of  the  musical  apparatus  of  the  insect. 
The  female  appears  much  narrower  than  the  male,  the  wing- 
covers  being  closely  wrapped  about  the  body. 

The  chirp  of  this  insect  is  a  familiar  and  prominent  nocturnal 
sound  during  late  summer  and  early  autumn,  all  the  males  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  chirping  in  unison.  The  sound  may  be 
imagined  to  bear  a  faint  resemblance  to  the  words  Katy-did, 
Eaty-did,  but  is  very  unlike  that  of  the  true  Katy-did. 

The  only  injury  to  plants,  worthy  of  mention,  is  that  caused 
by  the  female  in  depositing  her  eggs  in  autumn;  these  are  most 
frequently  placed  in  berry  canes,  but  are  also  found  in  grape 
vines  and  on  twigs  of  various  trees  and  bushes.  Their  location 
is  shown  by  a  long,  ragged  wound,  and  if  the  cane  is  split  open 
there  will  be  found  inserted  in  the  pith,  at  close  intervals,  a 
series  of  yellowish,  oblong,  cylindrical  eggs,  about  one -eighth  of 
an  inch  long. 


*For  the  sake  of  uniformity  with  other  parts  of  the  volume  and  of  the  series  of 
which  it  forms  a  part,  a  comma  is  inserted  after  the  specific  name,  and  the  latter 
begins  with  a  capital  when  derived  from  a  proper  noun.  This  practice,  though 
common  among  European  entomologists,  is  not  so  general  in  the  United  States. 


THE    TARNISHED    PLANT-BUG  253 

Remedy. — The  eggs  are  laid  late  in  autumn,  but  do  not  hatch 
till  the  following  summer,  so  that  cutting  out  and  burning  the 
wounded  portions  at  the  annual  pruning  is  the  only  remedy 
necessary.  As  the  young  insects  are  carnivorous,  feeding  largely 
on  plant  lice,  the  benefit  which  they  render  the  fruit-grower 
probably  exceeds  the  injury,  unless  at  times  when  they  are 
unusually  abundant. 

THE  TARNISHED  PLANT-BUG  (Fig.  32) 
Lygus  pratensis,    Linn.— Order  Hemiptera:     Family  Capsidse 

Weed,  Ins.  and  Insecticides.  93. 

Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:213. 
Lygus  lineolaris  (P.  Beauv.). 

Forbes,  111.  Rep.  13:115. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  147. 
Capsus  oblineatus,  Say. 

Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  2:291. 

This  species  is  one  of  the  true  bugs,  a  class  of  insects 
destitute  of  jaws,  but  provided  with  a  sucking  beak  for  draw- 
ing the  juices  from  plants.  It  is  very  abundant  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  subsisting  upon 
a  great  variety  of  plants.  Although  not  re- 
garded as  specially  injurious  in  a  general  way, 
it  sometimes  proves  very  destructive,  espe- 
cially to  strawberries,  attacking  the  young  fruit, 
and  causing  an  imperfect  development,  in  the 
form  of  "nubbins"  or  "buttons."  It  also  at- 
tacks young  blackberries,  and  perhaps  rasp- 
berries, in  a  similar  way,  in  addition  to  feed- 
ing on  other  tender  parts  of  the  plant.  Fig.  32.  Tarnished 

The  following  brief  account  is  taken  from          plant-bug, 
the   summary  of  Forbes's  excellent   article  on     Lygu&  pratensis. 
this  species: 

"  The  old  bugs  winter  under  rubbish  upon  the  ground,  emerge 
early  in  spring,  cluster  upon  the  unfolding  buds  of  fruit  trees, 
the  fresh  foliage  of  strawberries  and  other  early  vegetation,  and 
there  lay  their  eggs,  which  hatch,  and  old  and  young  together 


254  BUSH-FRUITS 

drain  the  sap  of  these  succulent  growing  parts.  The  effect  is  to 
arrest  the  development  of  the  leaves,  or  even  to  kill  them,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  strawberry,  to  interfere  with  the  growth  of 
the  fruit;  sometimes,  at  least,  causing  what  is  known  as  the 
"buttoning"  of  the  berry.  Later  in  the  season,  the  buds  and 
leaves  of  flowering  plants  and  vegetables,  especially  the  cabbage 
and  potato,  are  attacked. 

"There  are  at  least  two  broods  in  a  year,  one  maturing  in 
May  and  June,  the  other  in  July  and  August,  while  it  is  possible 
that  there  is  still  another  intermediate. 

"Although  a  few  of  these  insects  are  devoured  by  birds,  no 
natural  enemies  are  known  to  have  any  positive  effect  upon 
their  numbers.  There  is  some  evidence,  however,  that  wet 
seasons  are  injurious  to  them." 

Remedies. — Obtaining  their  food  by  sucking  the  juices  as 
they  do,  the  arsenites  are  of  no  value  in  preventing  their  depre- 
dations. Pyrethrum  has  proved  most  satisfactory  where  the 
expense  is  not  too  great.  Kerosene  emulsion  also  kills  them, 
and  collecting  them  with  insect  nets  during  the  cooler  parts  of 
the  day  has  sometimes  proved  practicable. 

THE   BRAMBLE   FLEA-LOUSE 
Trioza  tripunctata,  Fitch.— Order  Hemiptera:    Family  Psyllidse 

Psylla  tripunctata  (Fitch). 

Fuller,  Amer.  Ent.  3:62. 

Thomas,  111.  Ent.  Rep.  8:18. 
Psylla  rubi,  Walsh  and  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  1:225. 

Thomas,  111.  Ent.  Rep.  8:17. 

Strong,  Fruit  Cult.  179. 

This  insect  belongs  to  a  family  closely  related  to  the  Aphides, 
differing  in  the  veining  of  the  wings,  and  in  having  antennee 
knobbed  at  the  end.  They  jump  as  readily  as  a  flea.  The  fol- 
lowing account  of  their  injury  was  given  by  Charles  Parry,  of 
Cinnaminson,  New  Jersey,  in  1869: 

"The  suckers  upon  which  this  insect  occurs  in  the  spring 
commence  to  twirl  around,  and,  when  not  interfered  with,  make 


THE   BRAMBLE    FLEA-LOUSE 


255 


a  complete  revolution  before  they  resume  their  usual  course. 
The  leaves  curl  up,  and  become  matted  around  the  curl,  so  as  to 
make  a  safe  harbor  for  the  lice -like  larvae,  which  during  the 
summer  appear  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  I  presume 


Mistletoe  of  the  blackberry. 


we  can  get  clear  of  this  insect,   after  the    larvae  are  produced 
by  cutting  off  the  curls  and  burning  them." 

In  1880  A.  S.  Fuller  calls  attention  to  the  rapid  increase  of 
this  insect,  and  to  the  great  injury  to  blackberry  plantations 
caused  by  it.  It  is  also  mentioned  by  W.  C.  Strong,  in  his  work 
on  fruit  culture,  as  doing  great  damage  in  some  localities.  The 


256  B  CTSH-FR  UITS 

injury  caused  by  it  has  been  mistaken  for  a  fungous  disease  at 
times,  and  in  parts  of  Delaware  it  is  known  as  "Mistletoe." 
(See  Fig.  33,  from  Bull.  117,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.) 

Remedies.—  Thorough  work  in  cutting  out  and  destroying  the 
infested  tips,  taking  care  that  none  of  the  insects  escape,  would 
doubtless  prove  effectual.  Mr.  Strong  recommends  strong  to- 
bacco water.  Kerosene  emulsion  may  prove  to  be  the  most 
efficient  and  practicable  remedy. 


THE  BUD  MOTH 

Tmetocera  ocellana,  S.  V. — Order  Lepidoptera:     Family 
Grapholithidse 

Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  249  (Flint  Ed.). 
Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Prts.  95. 
Fletcher,  Ent.  Rep.  Ont.  Dept.  Agr.  1885:  24. 
Fernald,  Bull.  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.  12. 
Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  50. 

This  insect  has  recently  proved  very  destructive  to  apples,  and 
has  also  been  observed  on  blackberries.  It  appears  early  in 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  open,  eating  into  them  and 
devouring  the  inner  portions.  It  is  a  European  species,  which 
first  appeared  in  this  country  in  Massachusetts,  about  1841,  and 
has  now  become  widely  distributed  over  the  northeastern  portion 
of  the  United  States  and  parts  of  Canada. 

Some  excellent  results  of  observations  upon  this  insect  were 
published  by  M.  V.  Slingerland,  in  Bulletin  50  of  the  Cornell 
University  Experiment  Station,  from  which  many  of  the  follow- 
ing statements  are  taken. 

"The  central  leaves  and  flowers  are  tied  together  with  silken 
threads,  and  when  the  pest  needs  more  food  it  draws  in  and 
fastens  an  outer  leaf  or  L  flower.  In  a  short  time  some  of  the 
partly  eaten  leaves  in  this  nest  turn  brown  and  become  detached 
from  the  branch,  thus  rendering  the  work  of  the  pest  quite  con- 
spicuous." 

The  larva  lives  most  of  the  time  within  a  tube  formed  by  roll- 


THE    BUD    MOTH  257 

ing  the  edge  of  the  leaf  down,  fastening  it,  and  sparsely  lining 
the  interior  with  silk.  It  comes  forth  from  this  tube  to  feed,  but 
quickly  retreats  into  it  again  when  disturbed.  Pupation  occurs  in 
a  cocoon  formed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  moths,  which  in  New 
York  appear  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  fly  mostly  at  night,  re- 
maining quiet  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  trees  during  the  day,  and 
are  so  similar  to  the  bark  in  color  as  not  to  be  easily  seen. 

The  eggs  are  generally  laid  singly  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves,  and  are  so  nearly  transparent  that  they  closely  resemble 
fish  scales  or  minute  drops  of  water.  They  hatch  in  from  seven 
to  ten  days,  and  these  summer  larvae  soon  make  themselves  a  tube 
of  silk  mingled  with  bits  of  excrement.  They  feed  on  the  epi- 
dermis and  inner  tissue  of  the  leaf,  not  eating  through  it,  and 
spin  a  protecting  web  over  their  entire  feeding  ground.  After  the 
third  moult,  when  they  have  attained  a  length  of  about  4  milli- 
meters, they  leave  their  tubes,  and  make  for  themselves  a  little 
silken  cell  in  some  crevice  or  roughness  of  the  bark,  where  they 
pass  the  winter,  in  readiness  for  the  opening  buds  the  follow- 
ing spring.  Their  injuries  at  that  time  are  particularly  exas- 
perating, because  they  apparently  destroy  as  many  leaves  and 
flowers  as  possible  by  eating  only  a  part  of  each.  There  is  nor- 
mally but  one  brood  in  northern  latitudes,  though  since  the  larvae 
hibernate  when  half -grown,  two  different  generations  appear  dur- 
ing the  same  season. 

Remedies. — The  following  is  Slingerland's  summary  concerning 
the  treatment  of  this  enemy: 

"  It  is  not  practicable  to  try  to  check  this  pest  in  either  the 
adult  or  egg  stages,  or  while  it  is  in  hibernation  as  a  half -grown 
larva.  Undoubtedly  it  can  be  checked  somewhat  by  spraying  in 
July,  when  the  larvae  are  at  work  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
But  the  best  time  to  combat  the  pest  the  most  profitably  and  suc- 
cessfully is  in  the  spring,  when  a  little  poison  can  be  easily 
sprayed  upon  the  opening  buds ;  and  thus  the  little  larva,  hungry 
from  its  long  winter's  fast,  will  be  quite  certain  to  get  the  fatal 
dose  at  its  first  meal." 

It  is  preyed  upon  by  several  hymenopterous  parasites,  a  large 
predacious  wasp,  Odynerus  Catskillensis,  and  by  birds. 

Q 


258  BUSH-FRUITS 


THE  BRAMBLE  CROWN-BORER.     (Fig.  34) 

Bembeda  marginata,  Harris.— Order  Lepidoptera:     Family 

Sesiidse 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  303. 
Smith,  Spec.  Bull.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  N.  9. 
Jack,  Gar.  and  For.  1892:  426. 
Webster,  Bull.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  45:  159. 
JEgeria  rubi,  Biley,  Mo.  Rep.  6:  111. 

French,  111.  Rep.  7:  175.    Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:  193. 
Weed,  Ins.  and  Insecticides,  103. 

This  insect  is  a  near  relative  of  the  peach -borer,  being  so  simi- 
lar in  all  its  transformations  that  it  has  at  times  been  mistaken 
for  that  insect  by  growers.  The  adult 
insects  are  clear-winged  moths,  appear- 
ing much  like  wasps  or  hornets,  for 
which  they  may  be  readily  mistaken 
when  seen  in  the  open  field.  The  body 
of  the  insect  is  rather  more  than  half 
an  inch  in  length,  black  and  prettily 

Fig.  34.    c7own-borer.        ^nded   with  golden  yellow,   with  a   tuft 
Sembeda  marginata.         of  yellow  hair  near  the  base  of   the  ab- 
domen.    The   wings   are   narrow,  trans- 
parent, with  a  bronze  or  reddish  brown  margin,  the  front  wings 
having  also  a  narrow  cross -band  toward  the  tip.      They  measure 
about   an  inch  across  when  expanded. 

~~  I  quote  the  following  points   concerning  its   life   history  from 
John  B.  Smith:* 

"The  moths  make  their  first  appearance  in  the  fields  late  in 
August  and  early  in  September,  and  soon  after  begin  ovipositing. 
A  single  egg  only  is  laid  on  the  cane  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  even  a  little  below.  The  young  larva,  when  hatched, 
immediately  eats  through  the  bark  and  begins  work  at  the  base  of 
the  stalk,  where  it  joins  the  crown  or  main  root,  confining  itself 
largely  to  the  sap-wood.  The  egg  has  not  been  observed  by  me, 

*Special  Bulletin  N.,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta. 


THE    BRAMBLE    CROWN-BORER  259 

nor  do  I  know  the  duration  of  this  stage.  The  young  larva  is  yel- 
lowish white,  usually  with  a  faint  reddish  tinge.  It  attains  a 
length  of  from  one -quarter  to  one -third  of  an  inch  during  the 
fall,  and  has  at  that  time  eaten  about  half  through  the  cane, 
sometimes  entering  the  pith  and  boring  up  into  the  stem  for  a 
short  distance.  It  is  likely  that  this  is  not  an  unusual  habit,  but 
it  is  by  no  means  general,  and  of  the  many  specimens  taken,  only 
two  were  found  in  the  stem  early  in  the  season.  In  very  few  of 
the  infested  canes  did  I  find  burrows,  old  or  recent,  in  the 
center." 

The  injury  is  done  by  girdling  the  canes  at  the  base  of  the 
main  root.  In  one  field  in  New  Jersey,  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the 
canes  were  infested.  As  the  season  advances  the  larvae  appear  to 
leave  the  old  wood  and  attack  the  young  shoots,  causing  them  to 
wilt  and  die. 

Smith  observed  larvae  of  two  distinct  sizes,  and  further  obser- 
vation of  their  transformations  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
insect  remains  two  years  in  this  state. 

Much  of  the  work  of  this  pest  has  been  attributed  to  winter- 
killing, from  the  fact  that  many  of  the  canes  attacked  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  season  remain  alive  till  winter,  and  fail  to  leaf  out  the 
following  spring. 

Remedies. — The  habits  of  the  species  place  it  beyond  the  reach 
of  any  insecticide,  so  far  as  known,  and  the  only  practical  means 
of  combating  it  is  by  removing  and  burning  the  infested  canes, 
taking  care  that  no  larvsB  escape.  All  dead  canes  which  are 
visible  after  growth  starts  in  spring  should  be  examined,  and  if 
their  death  is  due  to  this  cause,  the  borer  is  pretty  sure  to  be 
found  at  the  base.  Their  attacks  on  the  young  canes  in  summer 
offer  an  especially  favorable  opportunity  for  their  destruction, 
since  these  tender  shoots  show  the  effects  of  their  presence  at 
once,  and  there  is  more  certainty  of  discovering  the  depredator. 
Thorough  work  on  this  plan  will  almost  wholly  prevent  the  devel- 
opment of  the  perfect  insect,  and  its  consequent  reproduction  and 
spread.  Especially  is  this  true  since  the  larva  carries  on  its  work 
for  two  years  before  reaching  that  state. 


260  BUSH-FRUITS 


THE   RASPBERRY  GEOMETER 

Synchlora  glaucaria,  Guen. — Order  Lepidoptera:     Family 
Geometridse 

Comstoek,  Man.  of  Ins.  288. 
Aplodes  rubivora,  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  1:  139. 
Synchlora  albolineata,  Pack. 
Eunemoria  gracilaria,  Pack. 
Synchlora,  rubivoraria,  Pack.  Mon.  Geom.  382. 

French,  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:  196. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Prts.  316. 

This  small  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  the 
raspberry  and  blackberry,  especially  the  fruit,  and  is  more  con- 
spicuous for  its  unwelcome  presence  there  than  for  the  amount 
of  injury  which  it  does.  It  is  particularly  troublesome  because 
it  has  the  ability  to  so  thoroughly  disguise  itself  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  detect.  It  does  this  by  fastening  to  the  thorny  prickles 
on  its  body  bits  of  dried  berry,  seed,  pollen,  leaves  and  other 
debris  which,  added  to  its  habit  of  looping  itself  into  a  small 
ball,  renders  the  disguise  complete. 

Confining  itself  principally  to  the  ripe  fruit,  no  practical 
remedy  seems  to  be  available. 


THE    RASPBERRY -CANE    MAGGOT 

Phorbia  sp. — Order  Diptera:     Family  Anthomyidre 

Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  126:  54. 

This  is  the  larva  of  a  true  fly,  grayish  black  in  color,  closely 
resembling  the  common  house-fly,  though  not  quite  as  large. 
The  larva  is  a  slender,  white,  footless  maggot,  found  burrowing 
in  the  tips  of  raspberry  canes.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  radish 
and  onion  maggot.  The  eggs  are  laid  early  in  spring,  very  soon 
after  the  young  canes  start,  in  the  fork  at  the  base  of  the  tip 
leaves.  The  young  larva  burrows  into  the  cane  near  the  point  of 
hatching,  works  its  way  downward  in  the  pith  a  short  distance, 


THE   RASPBERRY-CANE    MAGGOT  261 

then  proceeds  to  girdle  the  cane  inside  the  bark.  The  part  above 
the  girdle  soon  wilts,  turns  to  a  dark  blue  color  and  dies.  The 
effect  is  usually  to  kill  the  entire  shoot  also.  The  larva  continues 
to  bore  downward  in  the  dead  or  dying  cane,  transforms  to  a  pupa 
near  the  base,  and  there  remains  until  the  following  spring,  when 
it  emerges  as  the  adult  fly. 

Although  often  a  serious  pest,  the  insect  may  readily  be  over- 
come. If  the  wilting  tips  are  gathered  and  burned  as  soon  as 
noticed,  which  will  usually  be  during  May,  the  work  of  those 
larvre  will  be  forever  ended.  Professor  Slingerland  also  found* 
that  many  of  the  pupse  were  destroyed  by  a  hymenopterous  para- 
site, Idiasta  incomplete!,.  • 

THE  PALE  BROWN  BYTURUS    (Fig.  35) 
Byturus  unicolor,  Say.— Order  Coleoptera      Family  Dermestidre 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  310. 

French,  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:  198. 

Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  14:  358. 

Jayne,  Proc.  Amer.  Philosoph.  Soc.  1882:  345. 

This  insect  is  a  doubly  troublesome  one,  on  account  of  the 
injury  and  annoyance  which  it  causes  both  in  the  perfect  and  in 
the  larval  state.  The  mature  insect  is  a  small  beetle  about  three - 
twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  yellowish  brown 
or  pale  reddish  color,  and  densely  covered  with 
fine,  pale  yellow  hairs.  In  this  form  it  is  injur- 
ious to  raspberries  and  blackberries  by  eating  into 
the  flower  buds  and  destroying  the  sexual  organs. 
A  hole  in  the  side  of  the  bud  will  show  where 
the  beetle  has  entered.  When  the  injury  is  com- 
plete, the  buds  usually  wither  and  fail  to  open:  , Flg'  35t. 

'     turns  unicolor. 
if  only  partial,  the   flower  may  expand,  but  only 

to  develop  an  imperfect,  worthless  berry.  It  also  attacks  the 
open  flowers,  partially  hiding  at  the  base  of  the  stamens.  It 


*  Local  citation. 


262  BUSH-FRUITS 

works  chiefly  in  the  morning  and  evening,  seldom  being  seen  in 
the  middle  of  the  day. 

Its  offspring  next  makes  its  presence  unpleasantly  noticeable 
as  a  small,  soft,  tarnished  white  worm,  remaining  on  the  fruit  of 
the  red  raspberry  when  it  is  gathered.  It  is  usually  found  within 
the  cup  or  cavity  of  the  berry,  and  is  difficult  to  detect.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  carefully  examining  the  berries  one  by  one, 
though  even  then  many  of  the  smaller  worms  are  likely  to  evade 
the  keenest  search. 

When  full  grown,  the  larva  drops  to  the  ground,  often  with  the 
berry,  no  doubt,  hides  under  any  convenient  rubbish,  forms  a  little 
cell  in  the  earth,  and  changes  to  a  hairy  pupa  of  a  pale,  dull 
yellowish  color.  Here  it  remains  during  the  winter,  transforming 
to  the  perfect  beetle  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  May, 
and  emerging  in  time  to  carry  on  its  destructive  work  in  the 
blossom  buds. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  Paris  green,  not  too  strong,  using  as 
much  lime  as  Paris  green,  just  as  the  buds  are  developing,  will 
probably  check  its  ravages  to  a  great  extent. 

THE   BED-NECKED   CANE-BORER    (Figs.  36,  37) 

Red-necked  Agrilus. — Gouty -gall  Beetle 
Agrilus  ruficolis,  Fabr. — Order  Coleoptera:     Family  Buprestidre 

Walsh  and  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  2:  103,  128. 

Saunders,  Rep.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont.  1873:  8.    Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  307. 

Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  6:  123. 

Smith,  Spec.  Bull.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  N:  4. 

Horn,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  18:  289. 

Hopkins,  Bull.  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  15.    Ann.  Rep.  3:  160. 

Webster,  Bull.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  45:  191. 

In  winter  and  spring  the  canes  of  raspberries  and  blackberries 
often  show  one  or  more  comparatively  small  and  regular  swellings, 
an  inch  or  more  in  length,  the  outer  portions  being  roughened  with 
brownish  slits  and  ridges.  They  are  rarely  more  than  one -third 
thicker  than  the  normal  cane,  and  are  caused  by  the  work  of  a 


THE    RED-NECKED    CANE-BORER 


263 


small  borer,  which  is  very  similar  in  appearance  and  which  be- 
longs to  the  same  family  as  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 
This  swelling,  which  is  a  pithy  gall,  has  been  named  by  Dr. 
Riley  the  Raspberry  Gouty -gall 
— Rubi  podagra— although  there 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for 
applying  a  special  name  to  the 
gall  so  long  as  the  insect  which 
produces  it  is  equally  well 
known.  The  galls  are  usually 
confined  to  the  main  canes,  and 
may  be  near  the  base,  or  two 
or  three  feet  above  ground, 
though  sometimes  even  the 
more  vigorous  laterals  are  at- 
tacked. The  injured  canes  may 
put  forth  leaves  and  blossoms, 
but  the  fruit  seldom  ripens,  and 
the  cane  dies  before  the  end  of 
the  season. 

The  larvae  burrow  in  a  spiral 
direction,  confining  themselves, 
in  the  early  stages  of  their  ex- 
istence, wholly  to  the  sap  wood, 
and  by  this  means  girdle  and 
kill  the  cane.  According  to 
one  observer,  this  habit  of 
girdling  the  cane  in  order  to 
kill  it  the  first  season  seems 
to  contribute  to  the  safety  of 
the  larvse,  which  otherwise 
freeze  and  perish,  perhaps  owing  to  the  greater  quantity  of  sap 
which  surrounds  them  in  living  canes.  They  are  said  to  be 
more  frequently  destroyed  in  this  manner  in  blackberries  than 
in  raspberries.  Like  the  crown-borer,  it  often  escapes  detec- 
tion by  reason  of  the  belief  that  the  injury  is  due  to  winter- 
killing. 


Fig.  36.    Agrilus 
ruJicoUs. 


Fig.  37.     Work  of 
red-necked  Cane- 
borer. 


264  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  larva  reaches  its  full  size  toward  the  latter  part  of  April, 
bores  into  the  middle  of  the  cane,  where  it  will  be  more  secure 
from  insect  foes,  forms  a  smooth,  oval  cell,  and  transforms  into  a 
white  pupa,  showing  quite  plainly  the  marks  of  the  future  beetle. 
It  gradually  darkens,  and  assumes  more  and  more  the  form  of  the 
perfect  insect.  The  mature  beetles  begin  to  emerge  about  the  last 
of  May,  and  are  usually  most  abundant  in  June.  It  is  during  this 
period  that  the  eggs  are  laid. 

John  B.  Smith,  who  has  examined  large  numbers  of  the  very 
young  larvee,  finds  that  the  egg  is  laid  at  the  base  of  a  leaf -stalk, 
generally  near  the  ground.  He  says :  "  The  beetle  probably  does 
not  lay  more  than  one  egg  at  the  same  point,  and  one  larva  at  a 
leaf-stalk  is  the  rule;  but  sometimes  different  specimens  may 
choose  the  same  point  for  oviposition,  and  in  one  case  three 
larvae  had  started  together,  burrowing  under  the  bark,  each  for 
himself,  in  distinct  channels.  There  seems  to  be  no  rule  as  to  the 
direction  in  which  the  girdling  is  done,  some  starting  to  the  right 
and  some  to  the  left.  Sometimes,  when  eggs  are  laid  at  the  base 
of  a  leaf  from  which  a  vigorous  lateral  starts,  the  young  larva  will 
run  up  the  lateral  rather  than  the  main  stem.  Early  laterals  are 
sometimes  as  badly  infested  as  the  main  shoots." 

The  insect  is  thought  to  prefer  raspberries  to  blackberries, 
as  a  rule,  but  in  New  Jersey  the  Wilson  blackberry  suffers  most 
of  all.  Professor  Smith  observes  that  although  it  attacks  black 
raspberries,  there  are  no  galls  formed  and  no  injury  is  done,  the 
larva  apparently  confining  its  work  to  the  center  of  the  cane. 

Remedies. — A  knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  the  insect  at 
once  reveals  the  remedy.  As  the  perfect  insect  does  not  emerge 
from  the  cane  till  late  in  spring,  it  is  only  necessary  to  attend  to 
the  spring  pruning  promptly,  taking  especial  care  to  watch  for  and 
remove  all  galls.  This  may  often  necessitate  cutting  away  whole 
canes,  but  the  value  of  the  treatment  depends  entirely  on  the 
thoroughness  with  which  it  is  done.  All  wood  cut  away  should  be 
carefully  collected  and  burned,  for  removing  it  from  the  root  in  no 
way  hinders  the  development  of  the  beetles.  It  is  important  that 
growers  cooperate  and  do  the  work  thoroughly,  for  one  neglected 
patch  will  serve  as  a  breeding  ground  for  a  whole  neighborhood. 


THE    ROSE-BUG  265 

If  its  habit  of  work  on  the  black -cap,  which  prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  galls,  is  general,  this  may  form  a  barrier  to  its  destruction 
because  more  difficult  to  detect.  It  has  usually  proved  more 
destructive  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern  states. 


THE  ROSE  CHAFER  (Fig.  38) 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus  (Fabr.) — Order  Coleoptera:     Family 
Scarabseidae 

Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  35  (Flint  Ed.). 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  280. 

Riley,  Ins.  Life,  2:  295. 

Smith,  Ins.  Life,  3:  220. 

Horn,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  1876:  183. 

This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  enemies  of  the  horti- 
culturist wherever  it  occurs.  It  seems  to  be  created  on  a  plan 
which  renders  it  proof  alike  against  arsenites,  pyrethrum,  and  all 
known  insecticides.  It  can  be  scalded  to  death,  but  this  is  not  a 
practical  treatment  on  a  large  scale. 

Their  favorite  breeding  places  appear  to  be  open  fields  of  light, 
sandy  soil.  In  New  Jersey,  where  they  are  particularly  destruc- 
tive, Professor  Smith  states  that  they  breed  in  the  whole  of 
the  sand  district  of  South  Jersey,  the  larvae  being  abundant 
everywhere  in  the  brush  lands,  even  down  to  the  shore.  In  July 
the  female  beetle  lays  about  thirty  whitish,  nearly  globular  eggs 
about  one -thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  are  placed  one 
or  two  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  twenty  days,  and  the  young 
larvse  feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  plants 
until  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  when  they  work 
their  way  deeper  into  the  ground,  passing  the  winter 
in  a  torpid  state.  In  spring  they- approach  the  surface 
and  form  an  oval  cell  of  earth  in  which  to  pupate,  and 
from  which  they  emerge  in  great  numbers,  all  at 
once,  a  habit  common  to  other  beetles  of  the  class  F.  3g  jjose. 
to  which  they  belong.  This  occurs  about  the  time  bus. 


266  BUSH-FRUITS 

that  grapes  are  in  blossom.  The  favorite  food  of  the  mature 
beetle  consists  of  flowers,  especially  those  of  the  rose,  grape, 
spira3a,  sumach,  magnolia,  etc. ;  but  the  foliage  of  nearly  all 
plants  also  suffers.  In  one  report  of  their  ravages  in  New 
Jersey,  Professor  Smith  says:  "Of  the  small  fruits,  the  black- 
berries seemed  very  attractive.  They  were  on  each  blossom,  and 
ate  the  petals  but  left  the  green  forming  fruit.  Last  year  they 
ate  the  leaves  as  well,  and  left  only  the  canes.  This  year  they 
left  the  leaves.  Raspberries  were  totally  destroyed." 

Although  occurring  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the 
northern  half  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
it  appears  to  be  more  or  less  local  in  its  habits,  for  in  parts  of 
central  New  York  and  northern  Pennsylvania  it  is  seldom  or  never 
seen.  In  the  Gulf  states  the  species  is  replaced  by  the  closely 
allied  one,  M.  angustatus,  and  in  the  extreme  southwest  by  M. 
uniformis.  These  are  very  similar  in  appearance,  differing  only 
in  the  character  of  the  prosternal  process  and  the  pubescence, 
but  have  not  thus  far  proved  so  injurious. 

Remedies. — When  occurring  in  such  vast  numbers  as  they  fre- 
quently do  in  some  sections,  nothing  avails  against  them,  and  the 
cultivator  is  utterly  helpless  before  their  march.  Where  their 
numbers  are  limited,  kerosene  emulsion,  pyrethrum,  and  coating 
the  vines  with  whitewash  to  which  crude  carbolic  acid  has  been 
added,  have  been  found  useful,  and  sometimes  really  satisfactory. 
Mechanical  devices  for  knocking  them  off  and  catching  them  have, 
in  some  cases,  proved  more  practicable  than  any  other  plan.  At 
one  time  it  was  thought  that  hot  water  would  prove  effective 
against  this  insect,  but  notwithstanding  the  apparent  simplicity  of 
such  a  remedy  it  was  found  to  be  impracticable  for  general  use. 
The  temperature  required  is  about  130  degrees  Fahrenheit,  but  the 
range  is  very  narrow.  If  much  above  this  temperature  the  plants 
are  injured,  if  much  below  it  the  insects  suffer  no  harm.  To 
maintain  the  right  degree  of  heat'  in  field  operations  is  not  feasi- 
ble. Even  if  the  water  as  it  leaves  the  nozzle  has  the  right  tem- 
perature, it  may  not  have  when  it  touches  the  insect. 


THE    GIANT   ROOT-BORER 


267 


THE  GIANT  ROOT-BORER  (Fig.  39) 
Prionus  laticollis  (^Dru.).— Order  Coleoptera:    Family  Cerambycides 

Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  1:  124. -2:  87. 
Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  227. 
Thomas,  111.  Ent.  Rep.  6:  147. 
Smith,  Spec.  Bull.  N.,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta. 

The  following  statements  concerning  this  species  are  quoted 
from  Professor  John  B.  Smith's  bulletin  on  blackberry  insects: 
"Besides  the  crown-borer,  the  black- 
berry also  harbors  in  its  roots  an 
enormous  beetle  larva  between  two 
and  three  inches  in  length,  white  in 
color,  with  strongly  marked  constric- 
tions at  the  segments,  a  distinct  en- 
largement anteriorly,  and  a  small, 
smooth,  brown  head,  with  stout,  dark- 
brown  jaws.  The  parent  of  this  larva 
is  a  long-horned  beetle,  and  most 
probably  Prionus  laticollis,  Dru.  Dr. 
Eiley  found  this  larva  injuring  roots 
of  grape  and  apple  in  Missouri  more 
than  twenty  years  ago,  and  it  has 
been  found  also  in  other  trees.  So 
far  as  I  am  aware,  it  has  not  been 

heretofore  recorded  as  a  blackberry  pest.  Dr.  Eiley,  from  obser- 
vations made  by  him,  concluded  that  the  larva  required  three 
years  to  come  to  maturity,  and  with  this  conclusion  my  own  ob- 
servations agree. 

"  The  pupa  is  formed  in  June  or  early  in  July,  and  the  beetle 
makes  its  appearance  at  about  the  middle  of  the  latter  month.  It 
is  rarely  seen,  even  where  not  uncommon,  and  flies  principally  at 
night.  Fortunately  this  borer  is  comparatively  scarce ;  but  where 
it  does  occur,  signs  of  its  work  are  readily  observable.  It  lives  in 
the  large,  woody  portion  of  the  main  root,  in  which  it  bores  huge 
channels,  and  the  sudden  dying  off  of  several  canes  in  a  hill  is  a 


Fig.  39.    Root-borer.— Prionus 
laticollis. 


268  BUSH-FRUITS 

certain  indication  of  its  presence.  Barely  only  a  single  cane  will 
be  affected,  and  then  if  a  crown-borer  is  not  found,  the  presence 
of  this  insect  in  the  main  root  is  almost  certain." 

Remedies. — "Whenever  signs  of  its  presence  are  noted,  it 
should  be  at  once  sought  for  and  destroyed.  It  is  more  common 
in  old,  carelessly  kept  fields,  and,  where  numerous  in  such  places, 
it  will  be  better  to  grub  out  and  burn  all  suspected  stocks,  and 
replace  them  by  new  plants.  This  should  be  done  before  the 
middle  of  June,  to  prevent  the  maturing  of  the  beetles." 

THE  RASPBERRY -CANE  BORER  (Fig.  40) 
Oberea  bimaculata  (Oliv.) — Order  Coleoptera  :  Family  Cerambycidte 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  305. 

Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  5:  231. 

Comstock  and  Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  23:  122. 
Saperda  tripunctata,  Fabr. 

Harris  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  114  (Flint  Ed.). 
Oberea  tripunctata  (Fabr.). 

Bethune,  Canad.  Ent.  9:  226. 

Saunders,  Rep.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont.  1873:  9. 
Oberea  perspicillata,  Hald. 

Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  6:  111. 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  a  footless 
grub,  similar  to  the  round-headed  apple- 
tree  borer  in  form,  found  boring  in  both 

.  ,     ,  ,  T.     .     ,  Fig.  40.      Cane-borer, 

blackberry  and  raspberry  canes.     It  is  best       Oberea  Mmaculate. 

known  as  a  raspberry  insect,  but  in  Bulletin 

23  of  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,  from  which 
the  following  quotations  are  taken,  an  instance  is  recorded  of 
serious  injury  to  blackberries.  In  this  case  the  boring  larvae 
were  found  only  in  the  bearing  canes,  while  in  raspberries  they 
attack  the  young  shoots. 

"The  mature  insect  is  a  long-horned,  slender-bodied  beetle 
about  half  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  of  a  deep  black  color,  except 
the  segment  next  the  head,  the  prothorax,  which  is  yellow. 
There  are  usually  two  or  three  black  spots  on  the  upper  part  of 
this  segment,  but  frequently  these  are  wanting. 


THE    RASPBERRY-CANE    BORER  269 

"The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  early  summer,  usually  during  the 
month  of  June.  They  were  not  observed  in  the  blackberry;  but 
when  the  insect  infests  raspberries,  the  first  indication  of  the 
injury  noticed  is  usually  the  withering  and  drooping  of  the  ends 
of  the  young  shoots.  If  these  be  examined,  there  will  be  found 
at  the  base  of  the  wilted  portion  two  rows  of  punctures  encircling 
the  cane  about  half  an  inch  apart,  and  between  them  a  small  hole 
in  which  an  egg  has  been  deposited.  This  double  girdling  of  the 
cane  is  done  by  the  beetle  with  her  jaws  at  the  time  she  lays  her 
egg.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  purpose  served  by  this  gir- 
dling is  the  arresting  of  the  circulation  of  the  sap  in  this  part  of 
the  cane  ;  and  in  this  way  the  prevention  of  the  crushing  of  the 
tender  egg  by  a  vigorous  and  rapid  growth  of  the  tip  of  the 
cane."  The  larvae  bore  downward  in  the  pith  of  the  cane,  prob- 
ably reaching  the  root  in  autumn,  where  they  transform  and  pass 
the  winter.  "The  burrows  are  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  ;  they  wind  from  side  to  side  of  the  pith,  and  at  frequent 
intervals  penetrate  the  woody  part  of  the  cane.  In  some  of  the 
cases  where  the  woody  part  of  the  cane  is  penetrated,  an  opening 
is  made  through  the  bark.  These  openings  occur  at  intervals  of  a 
few  inches  throughout  the  length  of  the  tunneled  portion  of  the 
canes  ;  they  are  small,  being  about  one -third  of  the  diameter  of 
the  burrow  ;  and  their  object  is  to  enable  the  larva  to  deposit  its 
excrement  outside  of  the  burrow." 

Remedies. — "The  methods  of  combating  this  insect  are  simple, 
but  they  require  prompt  attention.  As  soon  as  the  tips  of  the 
canes  begin  to  droop  they  should  be  cut  off  below  the  point  where 
they  are  girdled.  In  this  way  the  larva  can  be  destroyed  before  it 
has  begun  to  bore  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  cane,  and  thus 
only  the  tip  of  the  cane  will  be  lost.  When,  however,  the  first 
indication  of  the  presence  of  this  pest  is  the  dying  of  the  entire 
cane,  caused  by  the  boring  of  the  larva,  the  infested  canes  should 
be  promptly  cut  out  and  burned.  These  canes  can  be  readily 
recognized  by  the  dying  of  the  leaves  and  by  the  small  holes  in 
them  described  above.  They  are  most  likely  to  be  observed  at  the 
time  of  the  blackberry  harvest.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  cutting  and  burning  of  these  canes  should  be  done 


270  BUSH-FR  HITS 

promptly.     For  if  it  be  delayed  till  autumn,  the  larvse  will  have 

penetrated  the  ,roots  and  will  then   be   beyond   the  reach  of  the 
pruning  shears." 


THE  STRAWBERRY  WEEVIL    (Fig.  41) 

Anthonomus   signatus,    Say. — Order    Coleoptera:      Family 
Curculionidse 

Chittenden,  Ins.  Life,  5:  167. 
Hamilton,  Can.  Ent.  24:  41. 
Anthonomus  musculus,  Say. 

Rikjy,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1885:  276. 
Fletcher,  Rep.  Can.  Exp.LFarms,  1890:  178. 
Beckwith,  Bull.  Del.  Exp.  Sta.  18. 

This  insect,  which  was  first  noticed  as  injurious  to  the  straw- 
berry in  1871,  is  at  the  present  time  coming  to  be  a  most  serious 
pest,  not  only  to  strawberries,  but  to  blackberries  as  well.     It  is  a 
small  curculio,  or  snout-beetle,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  black  head  and  convex  shining  wing -covers  variable  in  color. 
Its  injury  to  strawberries  has  been  so  great  that  a  series  of  special 
investigations  were  carried  on  during  the  season  of  1892  by  F.  H. 
Chittenden,  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  results  of 
which  appear  in  Insect  Life,  Vol.  V,  p.  167,  which  is  freely  quoted 
here.     The  principal  damage  is  done  by  the  adult  beetles  punctur- 
ing the  pedicel  or  flower- stem  a  short  distance  below  the  flower  - 
buds.     Concerning  its  work  on  blackberries,  Mr.  Chittenden  says: 
"A  blackberry  patch   at  Falls  Church,   of   the  variety  known   as 
Early  Harvest,  was  visited  June  3,  and  although  the  bushes  were 
covered  with  white  blossoms,  betokening,  un- 
der  normal  conditions,  a  rich  crop  of  berries, 
it  was  soon  seen  that  the  insect  had  been  at 
Fig.  41.    Weevil.        work,  but  not  in  the  same  uniform  manner 
Anthonomus  signatus.  as   on    the    strawberry,   some    plants     being 
noticeably  more  injured  than  others.    An  esti- 
mate of  the  total  damage  done  to  the  patch  is  about  20  per  cent. 
Badly  damaged  sprays  selected  at  random  showed  an  average  of 


THE    STRAWBERRY    WEEVIL  271 

five  or  six  injured  buds  to  each  flower   cluster.     On  one   large 
spray  over  two -thirds  had  been  killed." 

It  was  found  that  the  work  of  the  insect  on  the  blackberry  did 
not  differ  materially,  either  in  appearance  or  ultimate  injury,  from 
that  on  the  strawberry.  In  the  strawberry,  however,  the  punc- 
tures were  nearly  always  plainly  seen,  both  on  the  bud  and  the 
stem  beneath,  while  in  the  blackberry  only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  blighted  buds  showed  the  punctures  plainly.  Sometimes  the 
wounded  spot  in  the  calyx  had  healed  up  or  grown  over,  so  as  to 
be  nearly  invisible,  and  in  other  cases  the  punctures  had  been 
made  between  the  sepals. 

"Raspberries  of  the  black-cap  varieties  appear  to  be  exempt 
from  the  attack  of  the  strawberry  weevil,  but  whether  or  not  the 
red  raspberry  enjoys  the  same  immunity  has  not  been  ascertained. 
On  Mr.  Sprangle's  place,  at  Falls  Church,  a  patch  of  black-caps, 
which  is  located  between  the  infested  strawberry  bed  and  black- 
berry bushes  previously  referred  to,  was  repeatedly  examined  for 
traces  of  the  attack  of  this  insect,  but  most  careful  search  failed 
to  show  any  signs  of  injury,  and  no  beetles  were  found,  even  with 
the  aid  of  a  beating  net. 

The  wild  plant,  Rubus  villosus  (that  is,  R.  nigrobaccus)  is  prob- 
ably the  natural  food -plant  of  this  species.  Dewberries,  Rubus 
Canadensis  (that  is,  R.  villosus)  were  examined  and  a  number  of 
injured  buds  were  found,  but  on  close  inspection  proved  to  contain 
only  Dipterous  larvsB.  It  is  still  somewhat  doubtful  whether  this 
species  is  attacked  or  not,  but  it  certainly  is  not  to  any  great 
extent." 

The  following  is  Chittenden's  summary  of  the  life-history  of 
the  species:  "The  insect  undergoes  true  hibernation,  i.  e.,  in  the 
adult  state,  and  in  April  individuals  of  this  hibernating  brood 
begin  to  crawl  forth  from  their  winter  quarters,  fly  to  the  nearest 
flowers,  and  commence  feeding.  They  probably  continue  to  issue 
from  their  hiding-places  for  a  month  after  the  first  arrivals  make 
their  appearance. 

"Blackberries  are  invaded  at  the  time  that  the  [plants  begin 
blooming,  or  about  four  or  five  weeks  later  than  the  strawberry. 
Wild  blackberry  is  visited  still  later,  and  the  beetles  continue  on 


272  BUSH-FRUITS 


this  plant  for  some  time.  The  injury  to  these  plants  is  done  by 
the  female  in  the  course  of  bviposition,  and  is  produced  by  punc- 
turing the  stems  just  beneath  the  buds,  causing  the  death  of  the 
plant  above  the  point  of  attack.  A  single  egg  is  deposited  at  this 
time  in  each  flower-bud.  The  larvae  are  believed  to  hatch  within 
from  three  to  five  or  six  days  after  the  egg  is  deposited  in  the  bud, 
and  probably  attain  their  full  growth  three  or  four  weeks  there- 
after, when  they  transform  to  pupse.  The  pupal  stage  lasts  from 
about  five  to  eight  days,  according  to  thermometric  conditions, 
and  the  first  mature  insects  of  the  new  brood  begin  to  issue  from 
the  strawberry  buds  toward  the  end  of  May,  continuing  through 
the  month  of  June,  and  in  exceptional  cases  into  July.  The 
beetles  are  so  seldom  seen  after  the  middle  of  July  that  they  are 
believed  to  begin  to  hibernate  at  this  time.  Our  observations 
indicate  only  a  single  annual  generation.  All  of  the  earlier  stages 
of  the  insect  are  passed  in  the  bud.  It  never  attacks  the  fruit. 

The  larva,  which  in  general  appearance  resembles  the  grubs  or 
"worms"  found  in  plums,  cherries  and  nuts,  feeds  at  first  on  pollen 
and  the  stamens  and  pistils  of  the  unopened  flower,  but  if  these 
are  consumed  before  it  completes  its  growth,  the  receptacle  is 
attacked.  Pollen  is  thought  to  furnish  the  greater  portion  of  the 
food  of  the  adults  also,  a  fact  which  accounts  for  the  greater  in- 
jury to  staminate  varieties  of  strawberries,  and  .especially  those 
which  are  the  most  prolific  pollen  bearers. 

Remedies. — Four  species  of  parasites  have  been  bred  from  the 
insect,  and  these  will  doubtless  aid  in  checking  their  multiplica- 
tion to  a  certain  extent.  Few  practical  remedies  seem  thus  far  to 
have  been  tried,  and  the  most  that  is  offered  is  in  the  line  of 
suggestions.  Kerosene  emulsion  and  pyrethrum,  applied  when  the 
beetles  are  at  work,  may  be  found  satisfactory.  The  planting  of 
very  early  staminate  varieties  as  a  decoy  or  trap  crop  for  the 
hibernating  brood,  and  wild  bergamot  or  horse-mint  for  the  new 
brood,  is  suggested.  The  beetles  are  said  to  fairly  swarm  on  this 
plant  when  in  bloom,  and  can  be  readily  captured  with  a  sweeping 
net  or  reached  with  insecticides. 

Mr.  Chittenden's  investigations  show  the  insect  to  be  averse  to 
working  or  feeding  in  shady  places,  and  he  suggests  a  protecting 


THE    RASPBERRF    SA  W-FLT  273 

screen  of  muslin,  netting  or  paper,  as  affording  certain  immunity 
from  attack  on  small  patches  where  available. 


THE  RASPBERRY  SAW-FLY 

Monophadnus  rubi  (Harris.) — Order  Hymenoptera :     Family 
Tenthredinidro 

Selandria  rubi,  Harris. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  311. 
Thomas,  111.  Rep.  6:  61.    10:  67. 
Webster,  Bull.  Ohio    Exp.  Sta.  45:  154. 
Norton,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  1:  249. 

This  is  a  four -winged  fly  which  appears  soon  after  the  rasp- 
berry leaves  unfold.  It  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Saunders: 

"The  wings,  which  are  transparent,  with  a  shining  surface  and 
metallic  hue,  measure,  when  expanded,  about  half  an  inch  across : 
the  veins  are  black,  and  there  is  also  a  streak  of  black  along  the 
front  margin  extending  more  than  half  way  towards  the  tip  of  the 
wing.  The  anterior  part  of  the  body  is  black,  the  abdomen  dark 
reddish.  In  common  with  some  other  species  of  Selandria,  these 
flies  have  a  habit  of  falling  to  the  ground  when  disturbed,  espe- 
cially in  the  cool  of  the  morning,  and  remaining  inactive  long 
enough  to  enable  one  to  catch  them ;  but  with  the  increasing  heat 
of  the  day  they  are  much  more  lively,  and  take  wing  readily  when 
approached. 

"  The  eggs  are  buried  beneath  the  skin  of  the  leaf,  close  along- 
side of  the  ribs  and  veins,  placed  there  by  means  of  the  saw-like 
apparatus  with  which  the  female  is  provided,  where  it  swells  some- 
what and  produces  a  slight  discoloration  of  the  cuticle  on  the 
upper  surface.  The  skin  covering  the  surface  of  the  swelling  is 
so  thin  and  semi-transparent  that  the  movements  of  the  larva  may 
be  observed  a  day  or  two  before  hatching,  by  the  black  spots  on 
the  side  of  the  head  showing  through.  The  larva  escapes  through 
an  irregular  hole  made  on  one  side  of  the  swelling. 

"The  young  larva  is  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a 
large  greenish  white  head,  having  a  black  eye -like  spot  on  each 
B 


274  BUSH-FRUITS 

side;  the  body  nearly  white,  semi-transparent,  and  thickly  cov- 
ered with  transverse  rows  of  white  spines."  As  its  age  increases  it 
assumes  a  close  resemblance  to  the  color  of  the  leaf  on  which  it 
feeds.  When  full  grown  it  leaves  the  bush,  enters  the  ground  and 
constructs  a  little  oval  earthy  cocoon  mixed  with  silky  and  glu- 
tinous matter,  from  which  the  fly  emerges  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — Spraying  or  dusting  with  hellebore  proves  an  effi- 
cient remedy. 

THE    LESS    PROMINENT    INSECTS 

While  the  preceding  list  aims  to  include  all  species 
which  are  sufficiently  injurious  to  possess  real  eco- 
nomic importance,  it  is  obvious  that  no  strict  dividing 
line  can  be  drawn.  In  some  cases  insects  included  in 
the  following  list  have  done  much  more  injury  than 
many  of  those  already  mentioned.  Much  depends  upon 
local  conditions  and  environment.  If  special  condi- 
tions favor  an  unusual  development  of  any  particular 
species,  the  food  supply  of  its  parasites  is  thus  in- 
creased, thereby  inducing  an  increase  of  the  parasites, 
and  enabling  them  to  reduce  the  species  to  normal 
conditions.  Thus  nature's  balance-wheel  prevents  the 
undue  increase  of  any  class  of  her  children  and  con- 
sequent destruction  by  them. 

To  all  having  access  to  entomological  literature,  the 
references  given  here  will  be  of  aid  in  quickly  ob- 
taining information  upon  any  of  these  species  which 
may  chance  to  manifest  unusual  development  and  con- 
sequent injury.  Many  of  those  mentioned  can  never 
prove  injurious,  and  to  know  this  fact  may  at  times 
be  even  more  welcome  than  to  find  methods  of  com- 
bating them  as  foes. 


BRAMBLE   INSECTS  275 

CLASS   AKACHNIDA  (Spiders  and  their  relatives) 
Order   Acarina 

Tetranychus  telarius  (Linn.).  The  Red  Spider.—  Attacks  rasp- 
berries under  glass,  doubtless  also  in  the  field  in  dry  climates, 
as  it  does  many  other  plants. 

Bryobia  pratensis,  Garman.  The  Clover  Mite.  Riley  and  Marlatt, 
Ins.  Life  3:45.  Rural  New-Yorker  1894:  568.  On  Taspberries. 

CLASS  MYRIAPODA  (Centipedes  and  Millipedes) 
Order    Chilognatha 

lulus  impressus,  Say.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:216.  —  Ins. 
Life  2:258.  Found  in  raspberry  fruit  after  being  harvested. 

CLASS   HEXAPODA  (Insects) 

Order    Or  fhop  tera 
FAMILY 


Melanoplus  spretus  (Thomas).  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  110.  [Calop- 
tenus  spretus,  Thomas.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  7:159.]  Nearly  omniv- 
orous; injures  blackberries  more  than  raspberries. 

FAMILY  LOCUSTID^E. 

Orchelimum  glaberrimum,  Burm.  ,Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  5:123.  —  Fruit 
Recorder,  15:180  (1883).  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:205.  De- 
posits its  eggs  in  the  canes  and  other  pithy  stems. 

Order  Physopoda 

Thrips  tritici.  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  2:304.  Lintner,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Agr. 
Soc.  1881-82:192,  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:207.  On  flow- 
ers of  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Order  Hemlptera 
FAMILY 


Nysius  angustatus,  Uhler.  Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  5:321.  Riley,  Rep. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1884:315.  [Nysius  destructor,  Riley.  Nysius 
raphanus,  Howard.]  On  raspberry  fruit  ;  a  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  PENTATOMID^E. 

Cosmopepla  carnifex  (Fabr.).  Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  2:  144.  Webster, 
Ball.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:212.  [Cimex  carnifex,  Fabr.]  On  leaves 
and  stems  of  blackberry  and  potato,  fruit  of  currant,  etc. 

Euschistus  variolarius,  Pal.  Beauv.  Townsend,  Ins.  Life,  2:44. 
Reported  as  injuring  red  raspberry  fruit. 


276  BUSH-FRUITS 

FAMILY  CORIMEL^ENID^E. 

Corimelcena  pulicaria,  Germar.  (Fig.  42.)  Bethune,  Canada  Farmer, 
Aug.  1,1870.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  2:33.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts. 
317.  French,  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:200.  [Thyreocoris  puli- 
carius  (Germar.).  Forbes,  111.  Rep.  13:106.]  Piercing  raspberry 
fruit  and  injuring  it  by  the  "bed-bug  aroma"  imparted  by  its 
presence. 

FAMILY  CICADID^E. 

Cicada  septendecim,  Linn.  Packard,  For.  Ins.  95. 
Riley,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1885:  223. -Bull. 
U.  S.  Div.  Ent.  8.  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  150. 
Eggs  deposited  in  berry  canes,  twigs  of  trees,  etc. 

FAMILY  CERCOPID^E. 

Aphrophora  quadrangularis,  Say.  Walsh  and  Riley, 
Fig.   42.     Cori-  Amer.  Ent.  1:228.      Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  5:245. 

melcenapuli-  Morse,  First  Book  Zool.  97.    (1875  ed.)     A  spittle 

cariat  insect;    a  general  feeder,  often  found  on  black- 

berry. 
FAMILY  JASSID^;. 

Typhlocyba  tricincta  (Fitch).  Forbes,  111.  Rep.  14:115.  [Erythro- 
neura  tricincta,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:392.]  On  raspberry,  currant 
and  grape  leaves. 

FAMILY  APHIDID^E. 

Aphis  rubicola.     Oestland,  Geog.  and  Nat.  Hist.   Surv.  Minn.  Bull. 

4:60.     On  leaves  of  red  raspberry. 
Macrosiphum  rubicohim.     Oestland,  Rep.  Geog.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Surv. 

Minn.  14:27.  — Bull.  4:78.     On  twigs  and  leaves  of  red  raspberry. 
Pemphigus  rubi.     Thomas,  111.  Rep.  8:147.     French,  Trans.  111.  Hort. 

Soc.  1881 :  200.     On  leaves  of  black  raspberry. 
Sipha  rubifolii.     Thomas,  111.  Rep.  8:121.     On  blackberry  leaves. 
Siphonophora  rubi,  Kalt.     Thomas,  111.  Rep.  8:64.      French,  Trans. 

111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881 :  200.     On  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

FAMILY  ALEYRODID^E. 

Aleyrodes  sp.?  Observed  on  leaves  of  Rubus  odoratus  at  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  in  the  summer  of  1893. 

FAMILY  COCCID^E. 

Lecanium  Fitchii,  Signoret,  Essai,  404.  Comstock,  Rep.  Cornell 
Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2:  133.  On  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Mytilaspis  pomorum  (Bouche\).  Comstock,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
1880:325.— Rep.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2:118.  Saunders,  Ins. 
Inj.  Frts. :  40.  [Aspidiotus  pomorum,  Bouche".]  On  raspberry  in 
common  with  other  plants. 

Aulacaspis  rosce  (Bouche".).  [Diaspis  rosce  (Sandberg).  Comstock, 
Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1880:312.]  On  rose,  raspberry  and  black- 
berry. 


BRAMBLE  INSECTS  277 

Chionaspis  furfurus  (Fitch.).  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts. :  44.  Comstock, 
Eep.  U.  S.  Dep.  Agr.  1880: 315.  — Rep.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta. 
2:103.  [Aspidiotus  furfurus,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  352.  Aspidiotus 
cerasi,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  368.  Diaspis  Harrisii,  Walsh.  Riley, 
Amer.  Nat.  15:487.]  On  black  raspberry,  apple,  pear  and  other 
trees. 

Order  Lepidoptera 
FAMILY  MEGALOPYGID^. 

Megalopyge  crispata  (Pack.).  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  218.  [Lagoa 
crispata.  Packard,  Amer.  Nat.  19:714.— For  Ins:  139.  Lintner, 
Ent.  Corres.  2: 138. -Rep.  N.  Y.  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.  4:138.]  On  leaves 
of  blackberry,  raspberry  plum,  apple,  and  other  trees. 

FAMILY  EUCLEID^;. 

Empretia  stimulea,  Clemens.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  113—353. 
Packard,  For.  Ins.  146.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:168.  A 
general  feeder. 

FAMILY  PTEROPHORID^. 

Oxiptilus  tenuidactihis,  Fitch.  [Oxiptilus  nigrociliatus,  Zell.  Saun- 
ders, Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  314.  Oxiptilus  delavaricus,  Zell.  Forbes,  111. 
Rep.  14:  91.]  On  leaves  of  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

FAMILY  GRAPHOLITHIDJE. 

Eudemis  botrana  (Schiff. ).  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  299.  [Penthina 
vitivorana,  Pack.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  1: 113.  Walsh  and  Riley,  Amer. 
Ent.  1:177.]  On  blackberry  blossoms,  and  within  the  fruit  of 
grape. 

Exartema  permundana,  Clem.    (Fig.  43.)  Clemens, 
Proc.  Phila.    Acad.    Sci.    1860:356.       Comstock, 
Rep.    U.    S.   Dept.    Agr.   1880:267.        [Eccopsis 
permundana  (Clem.).     Packard,  For.  Ins.  312.— 
Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1885:330.     Saunders,  Ins.      pig    43      Exar- 
Inj.  Frts.  324.]     On  leaves  of   raspberry,  black-        tema  permun. 
berry,  strawberry,  and  other  plants. 

Phoxopteris   comptana,  Frol.      Saunders,   Ins.    Inj. 

Frts.  323.  Forbes,  111.  Rep.  13:  87.  [Anchyloptera  fragarice, 
Walsh  &  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  1:89.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  1:142.]  On 
leaves  of  strawberry,  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

FAMILY  TORTRICID^E. 

Caccecia   rosaceana    (Harris).     Packard,   For.   Ins.   505.      Saunders, 

Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  90.     [Laxotenia  rosaceana,   Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg. 

48  ( Flint  ed. ) .    Thomas,  111.  Rep.  1 1 :  10.  ]    On  leaves  of  rose,  apple, 

raspberry,  blackberry,  etc. 
Caccecia  rosana,    Linn.      Comstock  and   Slingerland,   Bull.    Cornell 

Exp.  Sta.  23:119.     Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:180.     Comstock, 

Man.  Ins.  244.       A  general  feeder. 
Lophoderus   velutinana,  Walk.     Forbes,   111.   Rep.    14:88.     Packard, 

For.  Ins.  196.     On  blackberry,  oak,  balsam-fir  and  maple. 


278  B  USH-FR  UIT8 

Loxotcenia  musculana,  Hub.  Fernald,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc. 
10:13.  On  Rubus,  and  many  other  plants. 

FAMILY  NEPTICULID^:. 

Nepticula  rubifoliella,  Clemens,  Tineina  N.  Amer.  (Stainton),  152. 
—  Proc.  Phila.  Acad.  Sci.  June,  1860.  Mining  in  leaves  of  black- 
berry. 

Nepticula  villosella,  Clemens,  Tineina  N.  Amer.  (Stainton),  164-174. 
—Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phila.  1:  84.  Mining  in  blackberry  leaves. 

FAMILY  LITHOCOLLETID^!. 

Tischeria  cenea,  F.  &  B.  Chambers,  Bull.  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geog. 
Surv.  4:99-113.  [Tischeria  malifoliella ,  Clemens,  Proc.  Phila. 
Acad.  Sci.  12:  208.  Tineina  N.  Amer.  (Stainton),  141.  Weed,  111. 
Rep.  15 :  45.]  Mining  in  leaves  of  Rubus.  Now  considered  distinct 
from  the  apple-leaf  miner. 

FAMILY  SESIID.S;. 

Sesia  hemizonice  (Hy.  Edw. ).  [^Egeria  hemizonice,  Hy.  Edwards, 
Papilio,  1:  198.  Rivers,  Papilio,  3:  26.]  Boring  in  the  pith  of  cul- 
tivated raspberries. 

FAMILY  NOTODONTID^E. 

Apatelodes  torrefacta  (Sm.  &  Abb.).  Hy.  Edwards,  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat. 
Mus.  35:  67.  A  rare  southern  moth,  known  to  feed  on  Rubus. 

(Edemasia  concinna  (Sm.  &  Abb.).  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  62. 
Packard,  For.  Ins.  457.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:167. 
f Notoaonta  concinna,  Sm.  &  Abb.  Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  425.] 
On  apple,  blackberry,  and  other  plants. 

Schizura  ipomece,  Doub.  Packard,  For.  Ins.  155.  Dyar,  Ins.  Life, 
3:  62.  [Ccelodasys  biguttatus,  Pack.]  On  oak,  maple  and  black- 
berry. 

Schizura  unicornis  (Sm.  &  Abb.).  Packard,  For.  Ins.  269.  [Noto- 
donta  unicornis,  Sm.  &  Abb.  Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  424.  Fitch, 
N.  Y.  Rept.  3:363.  Ccelodasys  unicornis.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj. 
Frts.  80.]  A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  ENNOMID^:. 

Cingilia  catenaria  (Cramer).  Comstock,  Man.  Ins,  279.  [Zerene 
catenaria,  Cram.  Packard,  Mon.  Geom.  218.  — For.  Ins.  783. 
Caterva  catenaria  (Cram).  Coquillet,  Papilio,  1:56.]  On  black- 
berry and  several  other  plants. 

FAMILY  GEOMETRID^:. 

Aspilates  coloraria,  Fabr.  Packard,  Mon.  Geom.  206.  [Aspilates 
atropunctaria,  Walk.]  On  leaves  of  Rubus. 

Eucrostis  chloroleucaria  (Guen).  Packard,  Mon.  Geom.  370. 
[Nemoria  chloroleucaria,  Guen.]  On  red  raspberry. 

Eupithecia  implicata,  Walk.  Var.  interrupto  -fasciata,  Pack. 
[JZupithecia  interrupto -fas  data.  Thomas,  111.  Rep.  11:23.  Saun- 
ders, Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  352.  Coquillet,  Papilio,  1:56.]  On  fruit  of 
currant  and  raspberry  ;  also  on  flower  of  clover  and  other  plants. 


BRAMBLE  INSECTS  279 

Microgonia  limbaria,  Haw.  [Nematocampa  filamentaria,  Guen. 
Packard,  Mon.  Geom.  471.  — For.  Ins.  182.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj. 
Frts.  167.  Forbes,  111.  Rep.  13:79.]  On  raspberry. 

FAMILY  CYMATOPHOBID^. 

Thyatira  scripta  (Gosse).  [Habrosyne  scripta,  Gosse.  Thaxter, 
Papilio,  3:10.]  Eggs  found  on  raspberry  leaves. 

FAMILY  NOCTUID^!. 

Acronycta  Americana,  Harris.      French,  111.  Rep.  7:  200.      [Apatela 

Americana  (Harr.).     Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  436.     Packard,  For. 

Ins.  397.     Hulst,  Ent.  Amer.  4:85.]     On  blackberry  ;    a  general 

feeder. 
Acronycta  brumosa,  Guen.     French,  Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:194. 

[Apatela  brumosa  (Guen).     Coquillet,  Papilio,  1:56.      Saunders, 

Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  313.]     On  raspberry  leaves. 
Acronycta  oblinita,   Sin.  &  Abb.     [Apatela  oblinita   (Sin.  &  Abb.). 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  325.]    A  general  feeder. 
Acronycta  spinigera,  Guen.     [Apatela  spinigera  (Guen.).     Thaxter, 

Psyche,  2:121.]     On  blackberry  ;    a  general  feeder. 
Acronycta  xyliniformis ,  Guen.    [Acronycta  xylinoides,  Guen.    Riley, 

Mo.  Rep.  5:126.     Apatela  xyliniformis  (Guen).     Thaxter,  Papilio, 

3:17.]     On  blackberry  ;    a  general  feeder. 
Amphipyra  pyramidoides,  Guen.       Saunders,    Canad.    Ent.    7:14. 

Comstock,    Man.    Ins.   302.       [Pyrophila   pyramidoides    (Guen). 

Saunders,    Ins.   Inj.   Frts.   274.     French,    Trans.    111.    Hort.    Soc. 

1881:195.    Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:177.]     On  grape,  rasp- 
berry, plum  and  other  plants. 
ffydrcecia  nitela  (Guen).    [Gortyna  nitela,  Guen.    LeBaron,  111.  Rep. 

3:141.     Smith,  111.  Rep.  7:112.     Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  1:  110.     Saun- 
ders, Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  334.     Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:176.] 

Boring  in  the  stems  of  cereals  and  many  other  plants. 
Hyppa  xylinoides  (Guen.).     Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rept.  4:138.     [Hadena 

xylinoides,  Guen.    Saunders,  Canad.  Ent.  2:33.]    A  general  feeder  ; 

taken  on  raspberry. 

Mamestra     picta,    Harris.        Lintner,    N.    Y.     Rep.    4:16.— 5:206. 
'  [Ceramica  picta   (Harris).     French,  111.  Rep.  7:226.]    A  general 

feeder  ;  reported  on  raspberry  and  currant. 
Noctua    fennica,    Tausch.      Webster,    Bull.    O.    Exp.    Sta.   45:175. 

[Agrotis  fennica  (Tausch.).   Fletcher,  Ins.  Life  3:  247.]    A  general 

feeder  ;  primarily  on  clover. 
Prodenia  ornithogalli,  Guen.     [Prodenia  lineatella,  Harv.     French, 

Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:195.  — Canad.  Ent.  13:24.]     Feeds   on 

raspberry  in  confinement. 
Pyrrhia  umbra  (Hiibn.).     Forbes,  111.  Rep.  14:88.      [Heliothis    ex- 

primens   (Walk.).     French,  III.  Rep.  7:233.     Pyrrhia  exprimens, 

Walk.      Edwards   and  Elliott,  Papilio,  3:135.]      On  Desmodium, 

smartweed,  rose  and  blackberry. 
Scopelosoma   sidus,  Guen.     Packard,  For.   Ins.  116.      [Scopclosoma 

vinulenta,  Grote.    Thaxter,  Canad.  Ent.  16:32.]    On  blackberry. 


280  BUSH-FRUITS 


FAMILY 

Haploa  Lecontei   (Boisd.).     [Callimorpha  Lecontei,  Boisd.     Forbes, 

111.  Rep.  15:2.      Var.  fulvicosta,  Clem.     LeBaron,  111.  Rep.  2:47. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  197.  J     On  buds  and  leaves  of  raspberry, 

peach  and  other  plants. 
ffyphantria  cunea,  Dru.     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  32.    Riley,  Rep.  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.  1886:  518.    Packard,  For.  Ins.  244.    [ffyphantria  textor, 

Harris.    Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  71.]    The  Fall  Web-worm;  feeds 

on  more  than  100  different  species  of  plants. 
Pyrrharctia  Isabella,  Sin.  &  Abb.     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  322.    Web- 

ster, Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:162.     Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  355.     A 

general  feeder. 

FAMILY  SPHINGIDJE. 

Paonias  exccecatus  (Sm.  &  Abb.).  [Smerinthus  exccecatus,  Sm.  & 
Abb.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  85.  Beutenmuller,  Ent.  Amer. 
l:196.-Can.  Ent.  23:14.  Dimmock,  Psyche,  4:282.  Packard,  For. 
Ins.  487.]  A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  BOMBYCID^:. 

Bombyx  vnori,  Linn.  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  340.  [Sericaria  mon 
(Linn).  Edwards,  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  35:67.  Jaeger,  Life  N. 
Am.  Ins.  146.]  The  silk  worm.  It  has  been  reported,  though  not 
on  the  best  of  authority,  that  it  will  feed  on  Rubus. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhwa  (Linn).  Fernald  and  Kirkland,  Special  Bull. 
Mass.  Hatch.  Exp.  Sta.  1897.  [Bombyx  chrysfarhoea,  Linn.]  A 
general  feeder,  preferring  the  pear. 

FAMILY  CITHEBONIID^;. 

Anisota  senataria  (Smith  &  Abb.).  Packard,  For.  Ins.  124,  Lintner, 
N.  Y.  Rep.  5:192.  [Dryocampa  senatoria  (Sm.  &  Abb.).  Riley, 
Amer.  Ent.  2:26.]  On  oak  ;  eggs  reported  on  raspberry,  but  per- 
haps accidental. 

FAMILY  SATURNIID^C. 

Automeris  io  (Fabr.).  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  351.  [ffypercheria  io 

(Fabr.).     Goodell,  Canad.   Ent.  11:78.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts. 

209.  —  Rep.   Ent.   Soc.  Ont.   10:75.      Riley,  Mo.  Rep.   5:133.]      A 

general  feeder. 
Samia  cecropia,  Linn.  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  356.  [  Attacus  cecropia 

(Linn.).     Dimmock,  Psyche,  4:276.    Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta. 

45:170.      Platysamia  cecropia  (Linn.).      Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts. 

73.  -Rep.  Ont.  Ent.  Soc.  1874:  22.]    A  general  feeder,  over  thirty 

different  genera  being  included  among  its  food  plants. 

FAMILY  LASIOCAMPID^;. 

Clisiocampa   Californica,  Packard,  For.  Ins.  119.     Stretch,  Papilio, 

1  :  64.     On  oak  and  blackberry. 
FAMILY  NYMPHALID^E. 

Polygonia  comma  (Harris).  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  404.  [Vanessa 
comma,  Harris.  Ins.  Inj.  Vig.  300.  Grapta  comma  (Harris). 
Packard,  For.  Ins.  241.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:158.]  On 
elm,  nettle  basswood,  etc.  ;  also  reported  on  blackberry. 


BRAMBLE  INSECTS  281 

Order  Diptera 
FAMILY  CECIDOMYID^;. 

Cecidomyia  sp.?  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:188.  In  canes  of 
Rubus  hispidus,  forming  galls. 

Lasioptera  farinosa,  O.  S.  Smith,  Spec.  Bull.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  N:13. 
Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:188.  Osten  Sacken,  Mon.  Dip. 
N.  A.  1:204.  [Cecidomyia  farinosa  (O.  S.).]  Forming  galls  on 
midrib  of  the  leaves  and  tips  of  young  canes  of  blackberry. 

Dipterous  Larva,  undetermined.  Feeding  within  buds  of  Rubus 
odoratus,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  destroying  the  floral  organs  and  pre- 
venting many  of  the  buds  from  opening. 

Order  Coleoptera 
FAMILY  COCCINELLID.E. 

Anatis  15-punctata  (Oliv.).  [Coccinella  15-punctata,  Oliv.  LeBaron, 
111.  Rep.  5: 183.]  On  fruit  of  raspberry. 

FAMILY  NITTDULID^E. 

Carpophilus  brachypterus,  Say.  Webster,  Ins.  Life,  2:258.  — Bull. 
O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:  191.  In  fruit  of  raspberry. 

FAMILY  ELATERID^;. 

Limonius  auripilis,  Say.     Webster,    Ins.    Life,  2:258.     Say,   Amer. 

Entomology,  2:112.     On  ripe  raspberry  fruit. 
Melanotus  communis,  Gyll.     Walsh,  Pract.  Ent.  2:119.     On  ripe  fruit 

of  raspberry. 
Monocrepidius    vespertinus,  Fabr.     Walsh,   Pract.   Ent.  2:119.      On 

ripe  raspberries. 

FAMILY  SCARAB^EIDJE. 

Anomala    binotata,  Gyll.     Thomas,  111.  Rep.  6:105.     Webster,   Bull. 

O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:197.     On  flowers  of  blackberry. 

Cotalpa  lanigera,  Linn.  Packard,  For.  Ins.  274.  Forbes,  111.  Ent. 
Rep.  13:146.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  155.  Fletcher,  Rep.  Ent. 
Soc.  Ont.  1879:  70.  Lockwood,  Amer.  Nat.  1869,  186,  441.  A  gen- 
eral feeder,  the  beetle  attacking  the  leaves  and  the  larvae  the  roots 
of  plants. 

FAMILY  CHBYSOMELID^E. 

Bassareus  mammifer,  Newm.     Beutenmuller,  Ent.  Americana,  6:175. 

On  blackberry. 
Chelymorpha  argus,  Leich.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  315.     Webster, 

Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:204.     A  general  feeder. 
Chlamys  pli'cata,  Fabr.     Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  6:128.     Packard,  Guide,  510. 

Webster,   Bull.  O.    Exp.   Sta.  45:200.     On    blackberry  and   other 

plants. 
Cryptocephalus    binomis,  Newm.      Beutenmuller,  Ent.  Amer.  6:175. 

On  blackberry. 
Cryptocephalus    quadruplex,    Mim.      Webster,    Bull.    O.   Exp.    Sta. 

45:201.     On  blackberry. 


282  BUSH-FRUITS 

Cryptocephalus  venustus,  Fabr.  Beutenmuller,  Ent.  Amer.  6:175. 
On  blackberry. 

Diabrotica  12-punctata,  Oliv.  Eiley  and  Howard,  Ins.  Life  1:58. 
Riley,  Ins.  Life  4:104.  Garman,  Psyche,  6:  28.  Webster,  Bull.  O. 
Exp.  Sta.  45:  202.  The  Southern  Corn  Root-worm.  On  raspberry. 

Crepidodera  cucumeris  (Harris).  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  317.-364. 
Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  578.  [Haltica  cucumeris  (Harris).  French 
Trans.  111.  Hort.  Soc.  1881:198.  Thomas,  111.  Ent.  Rep.  6:167. 
Epitrix  cucumeris ,  Harris.  Horn,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  16:  245.] 
The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle.  On  raspberry,  vegetables,  etc. 

Pachybrachys  carbonarius,  Hald.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:  202. 
On  blackberry. 

Paria  4-notata,  Say.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:202.  On  rasp- 
berry and  blackberry. 

Tymnes  tricolor,  Fabr.  Beutenmuller,  Ent.  Amer.  6:176.  On  black- 
berry. 

FAMILY  RHYNCHITID^E. 

Rynchites  bicolor,  Fabr.  LeConte,  Rhynchit.  of  Amer.  7.  Cassidy, 
Bull.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  6:18.  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  591.  On  rose  and 
raspberry. 

FAMILY  OTIOBHYNCHID^E. 

Otiorhynchus  singularis,  Linn.  Hamilton,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  21:  402. 
[Otiorhynchus  picipes,  Fabr.  Packard,  Rep.  Ins.  of  Mass.  2:14. 
Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  3:127.]  Destructive  to  raspberry  and  other 
plants  in  England.  Reported  in  America  by  Packard,  1.  c. 

Order   Hymenoptera 
FAMILY  TENTHREDINIDJE. 

JBlennocampa  paupera  (Prov.).  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:152. 
[Selandria  paupera,  Provancher,  Faun,  Ent.  Can.  2:  742.]  On 
raspberry. 

Fenusa  rubi  (Forbes).  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:152.  [Metal- 
lus  rubi,  Forbes.  111.  Rep.  14:87.]  Mining  in  leaves  of  black- 
berry. 

Harpiphorus  varianus,  Nort.  (?).  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:153. 
Riley  and  Howard,  Ins.  Life.  2:239.  Larvae  thought  to  be  this 
species  were  found  by  Professor  Webster  on  leaves  of  blackberry. 

FAMILY  UROCERID^E. 

Phyllcecus  trimaculatus ,  Say.  Smith,  Rep.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  1892:464. 
Norton,  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  2:345.  Boring  in  the  pith  of 
raspberry  and  blackberry  canes. 

FAMILY  CYNIPID^E. 

Diastrophus   Bassettii,  Beutenmuller,  Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist. 

4:248.     Forming  galls  on  canes  of  Hubus  Canadensis. 
Diastrophus  cuscutceformis ,    Osten  Sacken,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.   Phila. 

2:39.     Walsh  and  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  1:188.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj. 

Frts.  319.     Forming  seed-like  galls  on  canes  of  blackberry. 


BRAMBLE  INSECTS  283 

Diastrophus  Kincaidii,  Gillette,  Canad.  Ent.  25:110.  Forming  galls 
on  twigs  of  JRiibus  parviflorus. 

Diastrophus  nebulosus,  Osten  Sacken,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phila.  2:36. 
Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  2:159.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Prts.  318.  Forming 
elongated  pithy  galls  on  canes  of  blackberry. 

Diastrophus  radicum,  Bassett,  Canad.  Ent.  2:98.  Ashmead,  Trans. 
Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  14: 134.  Forming  galls  on  the  roots  of  blackberry. 

Diastrophus  turgidus,  Bassett,  Canad.  Ent.  2:99.  Ashmead,  Trans. 
Amer.  Ent.  Soc.  14:134.  Forming  galls  on  the  canes  of  red  rasp- 
berry. 

Rhodites  radicum,  Osten  Sacken,  Proc.  Ent.l  Soc.  Phila.  2:42-46. 
Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  2:181.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  304.  Forming 
galls  on  the  roots  of  rose,  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Rhodites  rosoe,  Linn.  (?)  Beutenmuller,  Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat. 
Hist.  4:248.  Forming  woolly  galls  on  stems  of  rose  and  black- 
berry. 

Cynipid  Leaf  Gall,  undetermined.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  .Sta. 
45:157.  Forming  galls  on  the  leaves  of  blackberry. 

FAMILY  MYRMIOID^. 

Solenopsis  fugax  (Latr.).  Webster,  Ins.  Life,  2:257.— Bull.  O.  Exp. 
Sta.  45 :  157.  A  yellow  ant,  burrowing  in  ripe  blackberries. 

FAMILY  PEMPHBEDONID^;. 

Stigmus  fraternus,  Say.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:158.  Pack- 
ard, Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phila.  6:  387.  Burrowing  in  dead  canes  of 
raspberry. 

FAMILY  CBABRONID^;. 

Crabro  sexmaculatus  (Say).  Couper,  Canad.  Ent.  1:  77.  A  sand 
wasp,  burrowing  in  canes  of  raspberry. 

FAMILY  ANDRENID^;. 

Prosopis  sp.,  Smith.  Kingsley's  Stand.  Nat.  Hist.  2:  536.  Boring  in 
the  stems  of  bramble. 

FAMILY  APID^E. 

Ceratina  dupla,  Say.  Webster,  Bull.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  45:158.  Corn- 
stock,  Man.  Ins.  669.  Burrowing  and  nesting  in  pithy  stems  of 
bramble  and  other  plants. 


CHAPTER   X 

DISEASES   OF  THE  BRAMBLES 

How  to  control  the  diseases  which  prey  upon  plants 
is  an  important  question  in  all  branches  of  agriculture, 
and  in  berry -growing  there  is  particular  need  of 
this  inquiry.  Cultivators  far  and  near  are  being 
driven  out  of  the  business  by  certain  of  these  dis- 
eases, yet  no  one  is  able  to  offer  positive  remedies. 
The  reasons  are  various,  one  being,  the  nature  of  the 
plants  and  fruits  themselves,  neither  of  which  can 
be  treated  with  remedies  or  preventives  during  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  active  season  of  depredation, 
without  injuring  the  fruit  or  rendering  it  unfit  for 
use.  Another  and  more  potent  reason  is  the  lack 
of  a  sufficient  number  of  skilled  men  to  study  the 
complete  life -history  of  the  maladies,  with  a  view 
to  ascertaining  their  weak  points  and  the  means  of 
meeting  them.  Few  people  not  engaged  in  the  work 
can  appreciate  the  amount  of  careful,  accurate  work 
often  required  to  trace  out  these  things.  Further- 
more, only  a  trained  specialist,  who  can  interpret  and 
understand  what  he  sees,  can  expect  to  cope  with 
them.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  careful  study  and  field 
experiments  may  in  time  make  it  possible  to  undertake 
berry -culture  without  fear  that  these  enemies  will 
thwart  the  best  efforts  of  the  grower. 

(284) 


RED  RUST  285 

This  book  can  add  little  to  what  is  already  known 
concerning  the  numerous  fungous  enemies  of  bush- 
fruits.  The  aim  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  present 
in  brief  form  the  more  important  facts  known  about 
those  which  prove  most  serious,  together  with  a  few 
of  the  most  accessible  references  to  what  has  been 
written  concerning  them. 

THE   IMPORTANT   FUNGOUS   DISEASES 
RED  RUST,   YELLOWS 

Puccinia  interstitialis  (Schlecht.)  Tranzschel,  Hedwigia,  1893:257. 

Cceoma  inter  stitiale,  Schlecht.  Mddium,  nitens,  Schw.  Cceoma  (jEcidium) 
luminatum,  Link.  Uredo  interstitialis,  Schlecht.  Uredo  lucida,  Dietr. 
Puccinia  Peckiana,  Howe,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  23:  57.  Puccinia  tripustu- 
lata,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  24:  91. 

Order  Uredinere. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  7:  699,  866  and  9:  331.  Burrill,  Par.  Fung.  111.  178, 
220.  Newcombe,  Jour.  Myc.  6:  106.  Clinton,  Bull.  111.  Exp.  Sta.  29: 
273-300. 

On  leaves  of  Bubus  nigrobaccus  (villosus),  B.  villosus  (Cana- 
densis),  E.  occidentalis,  B.  cuneifolius,  B.  strigosus,  B.  triflorus, 
B.  trivialis,  B.  hispidus,  B.  saxatilis  and  B.  arcticus. 

This  fungus  was  first  described  by  Schlechtendal  in  1820  as 
Cceoma  interstitiale.  The  relationship  between  the  mature  and 
immature  forms  was  independently  established  by  Tranzsehel  in 
Germany,  and  by  Clinton  in  the  United  States,  in  1893. 

The  appearance  of  this  disease  is  well  known,  both  on  wild 
and  cultivated  plants.  The  orange -red  color  of  the  under  surface 
of  the  infested  leaves  is  due  to  the  abundance  of  sori,  which 
produce  the  orange -red  spores  by  means  of  which  the  disease 
may  be  spread  from  plant  to  plant.  These  are  connected  in 
chains,  and  form  a  waxy  layer  over  the  affected  portions.  The 
mycelium  of  the  fungus,  which  corresponds  to  the  roots  of 
higher  plants,  is  perennial,  living  throughout  the  winter  in  the 
canes  and  roots,  and  a  plant  once  attacked  is  doomed.  Its 
vitality  is  sapped,  and  its  condition  is  soon  manifest  by  the 
numerous  small,  weak  canes  which  spring  up. 


286  BUSH-FRUITS 

Treatment. — Diseased  plants  should  be  rooted  up  and  burned 
as  soon  as  discovered,  to  prevent  the  spore  formation  and  con- 
sequent spread  of  the  disease.  This,  if  promptly  done,  is  a  prac- 
tical remedy.  Spraying  can  only  be  of  use  in  pre- 
venting new  infection.  If  employed  against  the 
anthracnose,  it  will  also  be  of  use  against  red  rust 
spores,  if  they  exist. 

ANTHRACNOSE    (Fig.   44) 

Glceosporium    Fenetum,  Speg. 

Olceosporium  necator,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Jour.  Myc.  3:  129. 
Order  Melanconieae. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  3:  706,  and  10:  450.  Burrill,  Agr. 
Review,  1882:  Nov.  Galloway,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1887: 
357.  Paddock,  Bull.  New  York  State  Exp.  Sta.  124:  261-274. 

This  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  serious  ene- 
mies to  raspberry  and  blackberry  culture  now  known. 
The  disease  was  first  described  by  an  Italian  botanist, 
M.  Spegazinni,  from  leaves  of  Eubus  Chamcemorus . 
Its  first  mention  in  this  country  was  in  the  Agri- 
cultural Eeview  for  November,  1882,  by  T.  J.  Burrill, 
who  referred  to  it  as  the  Easpberry  Cane  Bust.  In 
1887,  Messrs.  Ellis  &  Everhart,  in  The  Journal  of 
Mycology,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  129,  described  the  disease  as 
a  new  species  under  the  name  Glceosporium  necator. 

The  gray  discolored  spots  caused  by  this  fungus 
are  well  known  to  all  berry  growers.    They  are  found 

-  on  a11  parts  of  tne  plant  albove  ground.  On  the  leaf 
citing  knotty  surface,  however,  they  are  not  easily  distinguished 
growth  on  red  from  those  of  Cylindrosporium  and  Septoria.  They 
raspberry.  often  become  so  numerous  that  they  destroy  a  large 
part  of  the  living  cane  and  greatly  weaken  or  even  kill  it.  The 
disease  is  especially  liable  to  work  injury  just  at  the  ripening 
period.  On  red  raspberries  its  presence  sometimes  incites  a 
warty  growth  like  that  shown  at  Fig.  44. 

The  mycelium,  creeping  between  the  plant  cells,  causes  their 
destruction  and  the  consequent   appearance   of   the   dead   spots. 


ANTHRACNOSE  287 

Only  the  bark  and  cambium  layer  are  affected  as  a  rule,  the  my- 
celium rarely  entering  the  wood  to  any  extent.  Near  the  center 
of  the  spots  the  mycelium  threads  unite  to  form  a  dense  tuft, 
made  up  of  the  slender  club-shaped  basidia  on  which  the  spores 
are  borne.  These  basidia  are  formed  beneath  the  surface,  but 
soon  rupture  it  and  form  a  minute  globule  outside,  being  covered 
with  a  clear,  gelatinous  substance  which  holds  the  spores  in  place. 
When  brought  in  contact  with  water,  this  substance  readily  dis- 
solves and  allows  the  spores  to  float  away.  These  germinate 
readily  in  water,  and  many  of  them  soon  find  lodgment  in  healthy 
portions  of  tissue  and  form  new  centers  of  infection.  If  the 
water  which  sets  them  free  from  the  inclosing  mass  soon  evapo- 
rates, they  are  readily  distributed  by  the  wind. 

Treatment. — Experiments  at  Washington  have  shown  that  the 
spores  germinate  most  readily  in  pure  water.  It  has  also  been 
observed  that  the  spread  of  the  disease  is  more  rapid  in  wet 
weather  than  in  dry  weather.  For  these  reasons  it  has  been 
recommended  that  the  plants  be  so  set  and  trained  that  they 
shall  have  plenty  of  sunlight  and  air.  I  have  frequently  ob- 
served neglected  plantations,  or  others  in  which  no  pinching 
of  the  tips  had  been  done  to  induce  branching,  which  were  very 
free  from  this  disease.  How  much  of  this  may  have  been  due 
to  the  fact  of  the  long,  slender  growth  of  canes  and  consequent 
absence  of  shade  and  moisture,  I  cannot  say.  Old  wood  should 
be  removed  and  burned  as  soon  as  fruiting  is  over.  The  removal 
of  diseased  wood  in  autumn  or  spring  will  also  aid,  but  this  is 
seldom  a  feasible  plan,  for  the  fungus  is  so  indiscriminate  in 
its  attacks  that  to  remove  all  diseased  wood  would  often  be  to 
remove  nearly  all  prospect  of  fruit.  Experiments  at  the  Ohio, 
Minnesota  and  New  York  State  Experiment  Stations  have  all  shown 
that  the  disease  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  The  New  York  experiments,*  while  showing  beyond 
question  that  the  disease  may  be  controlled,  did  not  show  a  suffi- 
cient increase  in  fruit  to  cover  the  expense.  It  is  often  recom- 
mended to  treat  the  bushes  with  a  strong  solution  of  copper  sul- 
phate early  in  spring,  before  the  leaves  start,  but  their  results 

*Bull.  124. 


288  BUSH-FRUITS 

seem  to  indicate  that  this  is  unnecessary.  In  setting  a  new  plan- 
tation, care  should  be  used  to  secure  plants  free  from  the  disease. 
If  not  wholly  free,  cut  the  old  wood  away  as  close  as  possible. 
Spraying  the  young  shoots  when  they  have  reached  a  height  of 
six  or  eight  inches,  and  once  or  twice  thereafter,  will  prove  an 
additional  precaution,  and  the  cost  at  that  time  will  be  slight.  If, 
then,  the  plantation  is  given  good  care,  it  is  not  likely  to  seriously 
suffer  until  after  it  has  produced  its  best  crops.  The  longer  the 
bushes  remain,  the  more  troublesome  is  the  disease  likely  to  be- 
come. It  will,  therefore,  generally  be  more  satisfactory  to  remove 
the  plants  after  they  have  borne  their  third  crop.  If  spraying  is 
resorted  to,  it  should  be  remembered  that  |the  mycelium  remains 
alive  in  the  canes  during  the  winter,  and  that  spraying  can  in  no 
way  cure  the  disease.  It  can  only  prevent,  if  thoroughly  done, 
the  germination  of  spores  as  they  are  produced. 

Glceosporium  Rubi,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Jour.  Myc.  4:  52.    Saccardo,  Syll. 
Fung.  10:  450. 

Found  on  leaves  of  Rubus  nigrobaccus,  associated  with  Pucdnia 
interstitialis,  by  Prof.  S.  M.  Tracy,  at  Starkville,  Miss. 

Although  closely  related  to  the  preceding  species,  it  seems  to 
be  less  common  and  of  less  importance.  It  is  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other,  and  both  should  be  treated  alike. 

LEAP -SPOTS 

Septoria  Rubi,  West.— Order  Sphaeropsidese :  Family  Sphserioideee. 

Saccardo,   Syll.  Fung.,    3:  486.     Martin,   Jour.   Myc.,  3:  73.     Goff,  Rept. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1890:  399. 

On  leaves  of  most  species  of  the  genus. 

The  following  varieties  have  been  named: 

Septoria   Rubi  pallida,  Ell.   and   Howl.      Martin,    Jour.    Myc. 

3:  73;    on    leaves    of   Rubus  hispidus. 
Septoria    Rubi    alba,    Peck.    Rept.    N.    Y.    Mus.    34:    57;    on 

Rubus  nigrobaccus,  R.  villosus,  and  R.  trivialis. 

Ihis  is  one  of  the  commonest  species  affecting  the  genus,  and 
when  abundant  is  without  doubt  injurious  to  the  plant,  owing  to 
the  amount  of  leaf  tissue  which  is  killed  by  it  and  thus  prevented 


LEAF-SPOT  DISEASES  289 

from  performing  its  natural  function.  The  small  brown  or  light 
colored  spots  on  the  leaves  caused  by  this  and  Cylindrosporium 
RuU  are  familiar  to  all. 

Treatment. — Few  experiments  with  fungicides  have  yet  been 
made,  and  these  are  somewhat  conflicting.  Treatment  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  in  Mississippi  in  1889  was  reported  successful, 
but  experiments  made  by  Goff,  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and  a  mix- 
ture consisting  of  equal  parts  of  ammoniated  copper  sulphate  and 
ammonium  carbonate,  were  on  the  whole  unsatisfactory.  This  was 
used  in  the  proportion  of  12  ounces  of  the  mixture  to  22  gallons 
of  water.  Professor  GofPs  conclusions  are  quoted,  here: 

"The  foliage  of  the  raspberry  is  delicate,  and  cannot  endure 
applications  of  a  corrosive  nature.  The  foliage  of  the  black- 
berry, though  more  resistant  than  that  of  the  raspberry,  is  more 
susceptible  to  injury  than  that  of  the  apple.  None  of  the  treat- 
ments given  are  to  be  recommended  for  the  raspberry,  and  of 
the  materials  used,  only  the  copper  carbonate  solution  can  be 
pronounced  beneficial  in  the  case  of  the  blackberry," 

Cylindrosporium  Rubi,  Ell.  and  Morgan. — Order  Melanconiess. 
Ellis  &  Everhart,  Jour.  Myc.  1:  129.     Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  10:  500. 

On  leaves  of  cultivated  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

This  species  is  very  similar  to  Septoria  RuU  in  many  of  its 
characters;  it  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  that  the  spores  of  Septoria 
are  borne  within  a  more  or  less  thick-walled  and  dark-colored 
conceptacle,  while  in  Cylindrosporium  there  is  no  surrounding 
conceptacle.  The  two  species  are  often  associated,  and  cannot  be 
distinguished  by  the  naked  eye. 

Peronospora  Rubi,  Eabenh. — Order  Phycomycetese.     Family  Pero- 
nosporaceae. 

Rabenhorst,  Fung.  Europsei,  2676.     Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  7:  263.    Halsted, 
Bot.  Gaz.  15:  179,  323.— Amer.  Garden  1890:  688. 

On  leaves  of  raspberries  and  blackberries. 

Although  a  common  fungus  in  Europe,  this  species  was  first 
reported  in  the  United  States  by  Professor  Halsted,  in  1890,  from 
New  Jersey,  and  later  from  Long  Island.  It  develops  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and  is  difficult  to  detect  upon  rasp- 


290  BUSH-FRUITS 

berries,  so  closely  does  it  resemble  the  tomentum  of  the  leaf. 
Upon  the  blackberry  its  appearance  is  marked,  causing  a  red  dis- 
coloration of  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  as  if  it  were  ripening. 
Halsted  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  is  liable  to  cause 
serious  trouble  to  our  berry  growers,  and  suggests  the  advisability 
of  appropriations  to  stamp  out  such  dangerous  species  while  still 
confined  to  limited  areas. 

LEAF- BUSTS 

Phragmidium  EuU  (Pers.)  Winter.— Order  Uredineae. 

For  synonymy,  see  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:  745.  Winter,  Die  Pilze,  1:  230. 
Burrill,  Parasitic  Fung.,  111.,  1:  208. 

On  leaves  of  R.  nigrobaccus,  and  in  Europe  on  E.  fruticosus, 
E.  CCBSIUS,  E.  saxatilis  and  E.  arcticus. 

The  uredospore  form  appears  like  a  coarse  dusting  of  light  - 
colored  powder  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves;  the  teleuto- 
spore  stage  appears  in  the  form  of  black  dots  raised  above  the 
surface.  Although  this  never  seems  to  have  been  reported  as 
seriously  injurious,  the  abundance  with  which  it  is  sometimes 
found  seems  to  indicate  that  it  might  become  so.  Its  position  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  would  render  it  difficult  to  combat, 

Phragmidium  Eubi-idcei  (Pers.)  Karst. 

For  synonymy,  see  Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  7:  748.  Winter,  Die  Pilze,  1:  231. 
Burrill,  Par.  Fung.  111.  207. 

On  leaves,  petioles  and  peduncles  of  Eubus  Idceus,  E.  strigosus, 
E.  odoratus,  E.  parviflorus,  E.  occidentalis,  and  E.  cuneifolius. 

This  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding  species,  and  is  the  same 
in  outward  appearance;  it  occurs  on  raspberries,  however,  while 
the  other  is  found  chiefly  on  blackberries. 

Sphcerotheca  Humuli  (D.  C.)  Burrill. 

Burrill,  Par.  Fung.  111.  2:  400.  Ellis  and  Everhart,  Pyren.  5.  [Erysiphe 
Humuli,  D.  C.,  Flore  Francaise,  6:  106.  Sphcerotheca  Castagnei,  Lev. 
in  part.  Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  1:  4.] 

Order  Pyrenomycetese. — Family  Perisporiacese. 
Known   to    occur  on    leaves    of    Eubus   odoratus,  E.   trlflorus, 
E.  strigosus,  E.   hispidus,  and  other  species  of    Rosaceee. 

Treatment. — Although    not    often   mentioned    as    a   disease    of 


LEAF-RUSTS 


291 


Fig.  45.    Double-blossom,  a  disease  of  the  blackberry. 

economic  importance,  Burrill  states  that  it  sometimes  does  con- 
siderable damage  to  raspberries.  It  is  one  of  the  powdery 
mildews,  and  if  abundant  may  be  treated  with  fungicides. 


DOUBLE-BLOSSOM     (Fig.  45) 

Fusarium  (?)  RuU  (Wint.)  Sacc. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  10:  220.  Fusisporium  Rubi,  Winter,  Hedw.  24:  258 
Seymour,  Rep.  Minn.  Hort.  Soc.  14:  220.  Ellis  and  Everhart,  N.  A.  F 
1645.  Seymour  and  Earle,  Econ.  Fung.  25. 

Order  Hymenomyceteae :     Family  Tubercularieae. 

On  blossoms  of  cultivated  blackberry. 

This  fungus  was  first  worked  out  by  F.  S.  Earle,  from  Cobden, 


292  BUSH-FRUITS 

111.  He  sent  'specimens  of  it  to  Dr.  Winter,  of  Germany,  who 
described  it  as  a  new  species,  referring  it  provisionally  to  the 
genus  Fusisporium.  It  is  well  known  to  growers  in  certain  sec- 
tions under  its  common  name  "Double -Blossom."  It  has  been 
especially  troublesome  on  the  Wilson  Early  blackberry,  and  in 
portions  of  New  Jersey  has  caused  immense  damage,  often 
ruining  entire  fields. 

Treatment. — Few,  if  any,  experiments  have  been  made  in  trying 
to  combat  it  with  fungicides,  and  it  will  probably  be  found  diffi- 
cult to  control  in  that  manner.  In  fact,  until  a  careful  study  of 
its  life  history  has  been  made,  any  attempt  to  suggest  a  remedy 
can  be  little  more  than  guess  work. 

BROWN  EOT 
Monilia  fructigena,  Pers. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  4:  34.  Arthur,  Kept.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.  3:  254. 
Smith,  Jour.  Myc.  5:  123.  Galloway,  Kept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1888:  349. 
Humphrey,  Bot.  Gaz.  18:  85. 

Order  Hyphomycetese.     Family  MucedineeB. 

On  fruit  of  apples,  peach,  plum,  cherry,  etc. 

This  is  the  well-known  brown  rot  of  the  stone  fruits.  Al- 
though injurious  chiefly  on  this  class  of  fruits,  Professor  Arthur 
has  induced  it  to  grow  on  ripe  blackberries,  and  it  may  be  one  of 
the  forms  which  hasten  their  destruction  when  over-ripe. 

OTHER    IMPORTANT    DISEASES 

BACTERIAL  DISEASE  (Fig.  46) 

In  addition  to  the  fungous  diseases  mentioned,  there  are  one  or 
two  maladies  whose  natures  are  not  so  well  understood,  but  which 
promise  to  be  serious  enemies.  The  first  of  these  is  a  bacterial 
disease  affecting  the  canes.  Its  presence  is  shown  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  dark  purplish  spots  which  have  a  comparatively  regu- 
lar outline  and  vary  much  in  size,  sometimes  extending  until  a 
single  spot  wholly  encircles  the  cane.  They  are  perfectly  smooth 
at  first,  but  Mer  the  epidermis  within  the  spots  often  becomes 
ruptured  and  slitted.  Burrill  has  suggested  that  this  may  be 
identical  with  pear  blight.  As  yet  it  is  uncertain  how  much 
damage  it  may  cause. 


Fig.  46.    Bacterial  disease  of  raspberry.  Fig.  47.    Root-gall  of  raspoerry. 


294  BUSH-FRUITS 

CROWN-GALL    (Fig.  47) 

Woodworth,  Bull.  99,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Smith,  Jour.  Myc.  7:376.  Bailey, 
Bull.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  74:  383;  Bull.  117.  Card,  Bull.  Nebr.  Exp. 
Sta.  39: 131.  Selby,  Bull.  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  79:  110;  92:  208;  104:  211.  Hal- 
sted,  Kept.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  1896:  413;  1898:  354.  Toumey,  Bull.  33,  Ariz. 
Exp.  Sta. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  a  rough,  knotty  growth  about 
the  stem  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  on  the  roots  beneath. 
The  knots  or  galls  have  a  granular  appearance,  somewhat  resem- 
bling, when  young,  the  callus  growth  at  the  end  of  a  cutting. 
When  old,  they  look  something  like  the  black-knot  of  plums,  but 
are  not  so  dark  in  color.  In  Germany  the  disease  is  known  as 
"Wurzelkropf."  On  the  Pacific  slope  it  has  ruined  thousands  of 
trees,  for  its  injury  extends  to  fruit-trees  as  well  as  to  brambles. 
It  has  there  been  given  the  name  Crown- Gall,  which  is  probably 
the  best  name  to  retain,  though  the  trouble  is  not  confined  to  the 
crown  of  the  plant.  Although  a  widespread  disease,  its  cause  has 
been  discovered  but  recently.  The  trouble  has  often  been  attrib- 
uted to  the  work  of  the  gall-fly,  Ehodites  radicum,  but  the  galls 
made  by  that  insect  are  very  different.  Nematodes,  or  eelworms, 
have  been  so  frequently  associated  with  the  galls  that  some  have 
been  led  to  think  them  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

Professor  Toumey  carried  on  an  extended  and  careful  series  of 
studies  at  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station  which  led  him  to  the 
belief  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  specific  organ- 
ism belonging  to  the  slime-molds  or  Myxomycetes.  Although 
many  species  of  slime-molds  are  known  in  America,  but  one  has 
heretofore  been  known  to  be  parasitic,  and  that  one  was  doubt- 
fully placed  in  the  group.  As  a  class,  the  slime-molds  belong  to 
a  very  low  order  of  plant -life  and  exist  chiefly  on  decaying  vege- 
table matter.  The  one  responsible  for  the  crown-gall  is  so  unlike 
the  others  that  Professor  Toumey  thinks  it  should  be  placed  in  an 
entirely  new  genus  from  any  yet  described.  He,  therefore,  erects 
a  new  genus  and  species,  giving  the  organism  the  name  of  Dendro- 
phagus  globosus. 

Professor  Tourney's  experiments  prove,  as  have  experiments 
made  by  others,  that  the  disease  is  readily  transmitted  from  one 
plant  to  another.  When  minced  galls  were  mixed  with  the  soil  in 


BLACKBERRY    CANE-KNOT 


295 


which  almond,  peach  and  apricot  plants  were  grown,  large  num- 
bers of  the  young  trees  contracted  the  disease.  Making  incisions 
in  the  root  or  stem  near  the  surface  and  inserting  a  particle  of 
gall  also  communicated  the  disease.  Seeds  taken  from  diseased 
trees  and  planted  in  uncontaminated  soil  produced  none  of  it 

Treatment. — A  paste  consisting  of  two  parts 
bluestone,  one  part  copperas  and  three  parts 
quicklime  largely  prevented  the  spread  of  the 
disease.  When  trees  have  become  affected  the 
galls  at  the  crown  can  be  removed  and  the 
wound  painted  with  this  preparation.  By  this 
means  orchards  have  been  kept  in  bearing 
which  otherwise  would  have  failed.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  introduce  the  disease 
into  a  plantation.  It  may  be  readily  spread 
by  water,  especially  with  irrigation,  by  the 
wind  and  by  tillage.  If  plants  which  show 
galls  are  received  from  a  nursery,  Professor 
Tourney  considers  it  insufficient  to  simply  re- 
move the  ones  which  are  diseased.  He  recom- 
mends destroying  the  entire  lot. 

CANE-KNOT.     (Fig.  48.) 

Bailey,  Bull.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  99:  427. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  same  insidious, 
treacherous  habit  as  the  one  just  described. 
It  is  most  common  on  blackberries,  though 
perhaps  not  confined  to  them  alone.  It  is 
manifest  by  numerous  rough,  warty  knots  upon 
the  canes.  These  knots  somewhat  resemble  the 
black- knot  of  plum  in  appearance,  but  with 
small,  whitish  eruptions  surrounding  the  central  knot.  It  is  not 
common,  but  seems  to  be  widespread,  and  in  a  few  cases,  at 
least,  has  wrought  serious  injury.  A  similar  diseased  condition 
is  sometimes  to  be  observed  upon  the  canes  of  red  raspberries, 
as  a  result  or  accompaniment  of  anthracnose. 

The  only  treatment  that  can  be  recommended  at  present  is  to 


Fig.  48.     Cane-knot 
of  blackberry. 


296  BUSH-FRUITS 

avoid  all  plants  showing  indications  of  the  disease,  or  to  eradicate 
them  at  once,  if  found  growing  in  the  field.  To  combat  a  dis- 
ease with  the  cause  unknown  is  to  fight  an  enemy  in  the  dark. 
Yet  many  such  problems  confront  the  grower,  for  the  solution  of 
which  he  must  look  to  the  student  and  the  specialist. 

LESS  PROMINENT  DISEASES 

In  addition  to  the  species  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  many  others  have  been  reported  upon 
different  Rubus  hosts.  The  greater  part  of  these  are  of 
little  or  no  economic  importance.  The  following  enu- 
meration is  designed  as  a  mere  reference  list  for  the 
benefit  of  the  student.  The  species  are  arranged  ap- 
proximately in  systematic  order,  according  to  Sac- 
cardo's  classification,  with  the  most  available  refer- 
ences to  the  literature  of  each.  The  hosts  given  are 
simply  those  upon  which  the  species  is  known  to  have 
been  found.  Though  as  full  as  practicable  to  make 
it,  no  claim  is  made  to  completeness  in  the  enumer- 
ation, either  of  species  or  of  hosts.  Since  the  genus 
Rubus  is  so  largely  a  European  one,  and  since  this 
work  aims  to  deal  with  it  only  as  found  in  North 
America,  only  those  species  reported  from  North 
America  are  included. 

Little  attempt  has  been  made  to  decide  questions 
of  nomenclature  or  synonymy.  That  battle  is  left 
for  those  better  able  to  fight  it.  The  nomenclature 
follows  Saccardo's  "Sylloge  Fungorum,"  since  that  can 
be  taken  as  a  standard  throughout,  while  most  other 
works  deal  only  with  special  groups,  and  hence  are 
but  fragmentary  so  far  as  this  list  is  concerned. 


FUNGI  FOUND   ON  BRAMBLES  297 

Order  Pyrenomycetece 
FAMILY  PERISPORIACE^:. 

Sphoerotheca  pannosa  (Wallr.)  Lev.     Saccardo,  Sylloge    Fungorum 

1 : 3.    Ellis  and  Everhart,  North  American  Pyrenomycetes  6.     On 

leaves  of  different  species  of  Eosa  and  Rubus. 
Asterina  rubicola,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  1890:  219.— Pyren. 

35.     Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  9:384.     On  leaves  of  Rubus  strigosus 

and  R.  occidentalis. 

Asterella  Pearsoni,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  9:  395.  [As- 
terina Pearsoni,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Jour.  Myc.  1:92,  135.— Pyren.  42. 

Saccardo,  Additamenta  10.]     On  canes  of  cultivated  blackberry, 

Vineland,  N.  J. 
Meliola  tnanca,  E.  and  M.  Am.  Nat.  17: 1284.     Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren. 

47.     Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  9:419. 
Meliola  sanguinea,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Jour.  Myc.   2:42.     Saccardo,   Syll. 

Fung.  9:420.    The  two  preceding  species  on  leaves,  stems  and 

petioles  of  R.  trivialis,  Louisiana,  and  R.  nigrobaccus,  Alabama. 
Oapnodium  elongatum,  Berk  and  Desm.     Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  1:  75. 

Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  50.     On  leaves  of  many  different  plants. 

FAMILY  SPH^RIACEJE. 

Valsa  Rubi,  Fuck.  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  28:72.  Saccardo,  Syll. 
Fung.  1 :  109. 

Valsa  ceratophora,  Tul.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  461.  The  two  preced- 
ing species  on  branches  of  Rubus  Canadensis  and  other  plants. 

Falsa  subclypeata,  C.  and  P.  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  27: 109.  Sacc. 
Syll.  Fung.  1:  126.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  485.  On  leaves  of  Rubus 
mllosus. 

Valsa  syngenesia,  Fr.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:130.  [Diatrype  Fran- 
gulae  (Pers.)  Cooke,  Handbook  2:816.  Diaporthe  syngenesia 
(Fr.)  Fuck.  Symb.  204.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  442. J  On  branches 
of  Rubus. 

Valsa  sepincola,  Fuck.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:  134.  On  dry  branches 
of  Rubus. 

Gnomoniella  melanostyla  (DC.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:419.  [Sphceria 
melanostyla,  DC.  Fl.  Fr.  6:129.  Gnomonia  melanostyla  (DC.) 
Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  328. J  On  Rubus  odoratus  (Farlow  and  Sey- 
mour). Usually  found  on  elm. 

Physalospora  eriostega  glabrata  (C.  and  F.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:443. 
[Botryosphceria  fuliginosa  (M.  and  P.)  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  546.] 
On  branches  of  Rubus  Idceus,  New  Jersey. 

Venturia  Kunzei,  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:  588.  On  the  upper  surface  of 
Rubus  leaves  yet  living. 

Diaporthe  [Chorostate]  obscura  (Peck.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:627. 
Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  441.  [  Valsa  obscura,  Peck.  Rep.  N.  Y. 
Mus.  28:  73.]  On  dead  stems  of  Rubus  strigosus,  New  York. 

Diaporthe  [Tetrastaga]  gallophila,  Ellis,  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club, 
8:90.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:667.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  457.  On 
dead  canes  of  Rubus  nigrobaccus,  Ne*v  Jersey. 


298  BUSH-FRUITS 

Diaporthe  Tetrastaga  rostellata  (Fr.)  Nits.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:667. 

Ell.  and   Ev.   Pyren.  456.      On  branches  of  Rubus  nigrobaccus, 

R.  idceus,  R.  parviflorus  and  R.  vltifolius. 
Didymosphceria  Manitobensis ,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  732.     Sacc.  Syll. 

Fung.  11:313.     On  raspberry  leaves. 
Leptosphceria    Doliolum    (Pers.)    DeNot.     Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.   2:14. 

Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  355.     Common  on  dead   stems  of  herbaceous 

plants  ;    also  reported  on  Rubus. 
Leptosphceria  fuscella  (B.    and  Br.)  Ces.  and   DeNot.     Sacc.   Syll. 

Fung.  2 :  30.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  353.  On  dead  stems  of  R.  strigosus. 
Clypeosphceria   Notarisii,  Fuck.     Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  2:90.     Ell.  and 

Ev.  Pyren.  736.     Common  on  stems  of  Rosa,  Rubus,  etc. 
Clypeosphceria  Hendersonia  (Ell.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2%  91.     Ell.  and 

Ev.  Pyren.  410.     [Sphceria  Hendersonia,  Ell.  Grev.  5:  14.    Sphceria 

melantera,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  29:  62.]    On  dead  canes  of  black 

and  red  raspberry. 
Metasphceria  anisometra  (Cooke  and  Hark).    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:  163. 

Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  381.     [Sphceria  anisometra,  Cooke  and  Hark. 

Grev.  9:86.    JEndophlcea  anisometra   (Cooke  and   Hark.),   Cooke, 

Grev.  17:  89.]     On  twigs   of  Rubus,  Eucalyptus,   Dracaena,  and 

other  plants. 
Metasphceria  sepincola  (Fr.  ?)  Fuck.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:164.     Ell. 

and  Ev.  Pyren.  380.     [Sphceria  sepincola,  Fr.  Syst.  Myc.  2:498.] 

On  dead  stems  of  Rosa  and  Rubus. 
Sphceria  rubincola,  Schw.      Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:380.     [  Valsa  rubin- 

cola  (Schw.).      Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  473.]     On  branches  of  Rubus, 

Bethlehem,  Pa. 
Sphceria  ccespitulans ,  Schw.      Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:406.     Ell.  and  Ev. 

Pyren.  748.     On  branches  of  cultivated  red  raspberries. 
Sphceria   obtusa,    Schw.      Sacc.    Syll.   Fung.    2:423.       Ell.    and   Ev 

Pyren.  753.     On  dead  canes  of  R.  nigrobaccus. 
Sphceria  Ruborum,  Schw.      Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:423.     Ell.  and  Ev., 

Pyren.  752.     Common  on  dead  canes  of  Rubus. 

FAMILY  HYPOCREACEJE. 

Hypocrea  rufa  (Pers.)  Fr.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.    2:520.     Ell.  and  Ev. 

Pyren.  78.     [Sphceria  rufa,  Pers.,  Syn.  Fung.  13.]     Common  on 

decaying  wood  and  bark. 
Gibberella    Saubinetii    (Mont.)   Sacc.  Syll.    Fung.  2:554.      Ell.  and 

Ev.  Pyren.  120.     On  dried  stems  of  many  plants. 

FAMILY  LOPHIOSTOMACE^:. 

I/ophiotrema  prcemorsum  (Lasch.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:681. 
[Lophiostoma  prcemorsum  (Lasch)  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  233. 
Lophiostoma  Scrophularice,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  28:76.]  On 
dead  stems  of  Rubus  and  many  herbaceous  plants. 

Lophiostoma  bicuspidatum,  Cooke,  Handbook  Brit.  Fung.  2:848. 
Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2 :  707.  Ell.  and  Ev,  Pyren.  233.  On  decorti- 
cated twigs  of  Rubus  odoratus. 


FUNGI    FOUND    ON   BRAMBLES  299 

FAMILY  HYSTEBIACE^;. 

Glonium   macrosporum,  Tracy   and    Earle.     Underwood   and   Earle, 

Ala.  Fung.  197.     On  Rubus  nigrobaccus. 
Hysterium   angustatum,  Alb.   and  Schw.     Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  2:744. 

Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  693.     [Hysterium  pulicare,  var.  angustatum 

(A.  and  S.)  Fr.  Syst.  Myc.  2:580.     ffysterium  Eucalypti,  Phil. 

and  Hark.  Grev.  13:23.]    On  branches  and  bark  of  Rubus,  Pirus, 

and  other  plants. 
Hysterium  confluens,  Schw.     Sacc.,  Syll.  Fung.  2:  756.     Perhaps  only 

a  form  of  Hypoderma  commune  (Fr.).     Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  711. 

On  Rubus  canes,  Bethlehem,   Pa. 
ffypoderma    virgultorum,    DC.     Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  2:786.     Ell.    and 

Ev.  Pyren.  711.     [Hysterium  Rubi,  Pers.  Obs.  Myc.  1:84.]     On 

dead  canes  of  Rubus. 
ffysterographium     Ruborum,     Cooke.       Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    9:1123. 

[Hysterium  viticolum,  C.  and  P.  Disc.  U.  S.  33.     Grev.  4,  t.    68. 

Hysterographium    Mori    viticolum,    C.    and    P.       Ell.    and    Ev. 

Pyren.  704.     Hysterographium  viticolum  Rtiborum,  Cooke.  Sacc. 

Syll.  Fung.  2:782.]     On  canes  of  Rubus  nigrobaccus. 

Order    Sphceropsidece 
FAMILY  SPH^RIOIDE^. 

Phyllosticta  Ruborum,  Sacc.  Syll.   Fung.   3:8.      On  weak  leaves  of 

Rubus  strigosus  and  others. 
Phyllosticta  bicolor,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  43:  26. -Jour.  Myc.  6: 134. 

Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  10:  110.     On  leaves  of  Rubus  odoratus. 
Phyllosticta  variabilis,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  35:138.      Sacc.  Syll. 

Fung.  10:110.     On  leaves  of  Rubus  odoratus. 
Phoma  lethalis,    Ell.  and  Martin.     Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind. 

198.     Now  thought  to  be   the   pycnidial   stage   of   Clypeosphceria 

Hendersonia.     On  Rubus  villosus. 
Phoma  herbarum,  West.      Sacc.  Syll.   Fung.  3:133.     On  herbaceous 

stems  in  general. 
Vermicularia   compacta,  C.  and   E.   Grev.  5:54.     Sacc.   Syll.  Fung. 

3:222.     On  branches  of  Rubus,  grape,  and  dahlia. 
Vermicularia    effusa,    Schw.      Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.   3:222.     On   badly 

decayed  Rubus  stems. 
Cytospora  Rubi,  Schw.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:252.     On  young  twigs 

of  red  raspberry. 
Sphceropsis  rubicola,  C.  and  Ell.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:294.    On  canes 

of  red  and  black  raspberry. 
Diplodia  Ruborum    (Schw.)    Sacc.  Syll.    Fung.    11:518.     [Sphceria 

Ruborum,   Schw.  Syn.  Am.  Bor.  1677.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:423. 

Diplodia  Rubi,  Fr.  (?).     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:339.]     On  canes  of 

Rubus  strigosus. 
Ascochyta  Rubi,  Lasch.     Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host  Index  36.     On 

Rubus  villosus. 


300  BUSH-FRUITS 

Darluca  Filum  (Biv.)  Cast.    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:410.    On  Uredinese 

growing  on  Rubus  and  many  other  plants. 
Hendersonia  platypus,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Torr.  Bot.  Club  1884:73.     Sacc. 

Syll.    Fung.    3:420.      On   twigs   of  Rubus    nigrobaccus   and   R. 


Hendersonia  sarmentorum,  West.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:420-10:321. 

On  branches  of  Rubus  and  many  other  plants. 
Hendersonia  Rubi,  West.      Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.    3:  424.  —  10:  321.      On 

branches  of  Rubus  vitifolius. 
Rhabdospora  Rubi,  Ell.  Jour.  Myc.  3:90.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  10:388. 

On  canes  of  Rubus  strigosus. 

FAMILY  LEPTOSTROMACE^E. 

Leptothyrium   vulgare  (Fr.)    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:633.     On  stems  of 

Rubus  and  other  plants. 
Leptostroma  virgultorum  rubinum,  Karst.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:639. 

On  stems  of  Rubus  arcticus  and  R.  Chamcemorus. 
Discosia  Artocreas  (Tode)  Fr.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:653.     On  leaves 

of  Rubus  and  many  other  genera. 

Order   Melanconiece 

Myxormia  atro-viridis  ,   B.  and  Br.     Sacc.   Syll.   Fung.  3:734.     On 

Rubus  canes  in  Alabama. 
Libertella   Rosce,   Desm.      Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    3:745.      [Ncemospora 

Rosce  (Desm.)  Fr.  S.  M.  3:  479.]    On  weak  or  dead  canes  of  Rubus 

vitifolius  and  other  Rosaceae. 
Melanconium  griseum,  Schw.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:  750.    On  branches 

of  cultivated  red  raspberries. 
Coryneum  microstictum,  B.  and  Br.     Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  3:775.     On 

weak  or  dead  branches  of  Rubus  and  other  plants. 

Order   Hyphomycetece 
FAMILY  MUCEDINE^;. 

Botrytis  patula,  Sacc.  and  Berlese.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:  125.  Keller- 
man,  Jour.  Myc.  1:106.  On  dead  branches  of  Rubus  strigosus, 
willows,  etc. 

FAMILY  DEMATIEJE. 

Cladosporium   herbarum    (Pers.)    Link.      Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.  4:350. 

On  all  parts  of  different  plants  the  world  over. 
Cercospora  rosicola,  Pass.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:460.     On  leaves  of 

roses  and  blackberry. 
Cercospora   Rubi,    Sacc.    Syll.   Fung.    4:461.      On   leaves  of  Rubus 

trivialis  and  R.  cuneifolius. 
Macrosporium  punctiforme,   Berk.      Sacc.   Syll.    Fung.    4:531.     On 

dead  canes  of  Rubus  occidentalis. 
Macrosporium  Rubi,  Ellis,  N.  A.  F.  544.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  10:673. 

On  leaves  of  Rubus  hispidus 


FUNGI    FOUND    ON   BRAMBLES  301 

Septosporium  prcelongum,   Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    4:544.     On  twigs  of 
Hubus   occidentalis. 


FAMILY 

Sporocybe  parasitica    (Peck)    Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  4:605.     [Periconia 

parasitica,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus,  33:28.]     On  decayed  branches 

of  Hubus  strigosus. 
Graphium  pruinosipes  (Peck)    Sacc.    Syll.  Fung.  4:  614.      [Stilbum 

pruinosipes,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  33:28.]      On  dead  branches 

of  Hubus  strigosus. 
Graphium  gracile,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  34:  50.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung. 

4:616.     On  leaves  of  Hubus  strigosus. 
Isariopsis    Grayiana,   Ellis,  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club,   1882:98.     Sacc. 

Syll.  Fung.  4:631.     On  old  branches  of  Hubus  nigrobaccus. 

FAMILY  TUBERCULABIE^:. 

Tubercularia  decolorans,  Peck,  MSS.  [Tubercularia  carpogena, 
Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  43:31.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  10:705.  Not 
Tubercularia  carpogena,  Corda.]  On  ripe  blackberries,  discolor- 
ing the  affected  drupes,  making  them  red,  like  itself,  hence 
easily  overlooked. 

Tuberculina  persicina  (Ditm.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:653.  Parasitic 
on  Red  Rust  and  other  fungi  (Uredineae),  found  on  the  leaves 
of  many  different  plants. 

Hymenopsis  nigra  (Fr.  )  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:746.  On  stems  of  dead 
plants  in  general. 

Order    Hymenomycetece 
FAMILY  TELEPHOBE^;. 

ffypochnus  Sambuci  (Pers.)  Fr.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  6:656.  On  dry 
branches  of  Sambucus  and  Rubus. 

FAMILY  CLAVARIE^E. 

Typhula  rubicola,  B.  and  C.  N.  A.  F.  304.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  6:  750. 
On  dead  Rubus  canes. 

Order    Uredinece 

Phragmidium  gracile  (Farl.)  Arthur,  la.  Ured.  161.  Sacc.  Syll. 
Fung.  7:749.  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  29:50.  [Phragmidium 
incrassatum  gracile,  Farlow,  N.  A.  F.  282.]  On  leaves  of  Hubus 
odoratus. 

Coleosporium  Vernonice,  B.  and  C.  N.  A.  F.  569.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung. 
7:  755.  On  leaves  of  H.  nigrobaccus  (?). 

Chrysomyxa  albida,  Kuhn.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:  761.  Tracy  and 
Galloway,  Jour.  Myc.  4:62.  Stone  &  Smith  Rept.  Mass.  Hatch 
Exp.  Sta.  9:74.  [Coleosporium  Hubi,  Ell.  and  Holw.  N.  A.  F. 
1878.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:  759.]  On  leaves  of  Hubus  occidentalis 
and  H.  nigrobaccus  in  America  and  of  H.  fruticosus  in  Europe. 


302  BUSH-FRUITS 

Uredo  speciosa  (Peck)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung,  7:860.  [Lecythia  speciosa, 
Peck,  Bot.  Gaz.  1878:34.]  On  leaves  of  Rubus  deliciosus. 

Lecythea  tripustulata,  Peck.  Rav.  Fung.  Am.  491.  On  R.  nigro- 
baccus.  Resembles  Chrysomyxa  albida  in  external  appearance. 

Order  Discomycetece. 
FAMILY 


Pezizella  vulgaris  (Fr.  )     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:278.     On  dry  branches 

of  Eubus  and  other  plants. 
Peeicula  rhabarbarina  (Berk.)  Tul.    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:  311.    On  de- 

caying branches  of  R.  nigrobaccus  and  several  European  species. 
Pyrenopeziza  Rubi  (Fr.)  Rehm.    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:361.     On  dead 

branches  of  Rubus  in  Europe  and  America. 
Pyrenopeziza  lacerata  (C.  and  P.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:361.     [Peziza 

lacerata,  C.  and  P.  Grev,  1:6.]     On  twigs  of  Rubus  odoratus. 
Lachnella  rufo-olivacea  (A.  and  S.).  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:  398.    [  Velu- 

taria  rufo-olivacea,  A.  and  S.     Fuck.  Symb.  Myc.  300.]     On  dead 

but  moist  branches  of  Rubus. 
Trichopeziza   subochracea    (C.   and    P.)    Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    8:408. 

[Peziza  subochracea,  C.  and  P.     Grev.  1:6.]     On  stems  of  Rubus 

odoratus. 
Dasyscypha   bicolor    (Bull.)    Fuck.      Sacc.  Syll.   Fung.  8:439.      On 

branches  of  Rubus  and  many  other  shrubs  and  trees. 
Dasyscypha  acutipila  (Karst.)    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:447.     On  Rubus 

parviflorus,  stems  of   grasses,  etc. 
Dasyscypha  clandestina  (Bull.)  Fuck.  Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  8:457.     On 

fallen  and  decaying  wood  of  Rubus  and   other  shrubs  and  trees. 
Dasyscypha  scabro-villosa   (Phill.)   Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:458.   [Peziza 

scabro-villosa,  Phill.  Grev.  7:22.]    On  canes  of  Rubus  parviflorus. 

FAMILY  DERMATE^E. 

Tympanis  conspersa,  Fr.  Sys.  Myc.  2:175.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:578. 
On  weak  or  dying  branches  of  different  trees  and  shrubs. 

FAMILY  BULQARIEJE. 

Orbilia  vinosa  (A.  and  S.)  Karst.    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:622.    On  fallen 
and  naked  branches  of  Rubus  and  many  other  shrubs  and  trees. 
FAMILY  STICTE^E. 

Stictis    Rubi,   Schw.   Syn.  Am.  Bor.  179.      Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  8:694. 
On  old  canes  of  Rubus  nigrobaccus. 

FAMILY  PHACIDIEJE. 

Coccomyces  Rubi  (Fr.)  Karst.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:  751.    [Phacidium 

Rubi,  Fr.  Syst.  Myc.  2:  578.]     On  leaves  of  Rubus  parviflorus. 
Rhytisma  Blakei,  M.  A.  Curtis.  Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind.  37. 

On  Rubus  hispidus. 

FAMILY  PATELLARIEJE. 

Durella  compressa  (Pers.)  Tul.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:  790. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  BOTANY  OF  THE  BRAMBLES 

In  order  that  the  student  and  the  experimenter 
may  gain  a  proper  view  and  perspective  of  what  has 
been  done  in  the  amelioration  of  the  bramble  fruits, 
and  of  what  may  be  expected  from  further  effort,  a 
descriptive  inventory  is  here  made  of  all  the  species 
and  marked  natural  varieties  of  the  genus  Rubus,  which 
are  either  native  to  North  America  (north  of  Mexico) 
or  are  in  cultivation  here.  A  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject from  the  view -point  of  the  historian  and  plant- 
breeder,  together  with  a  revision  of  the  blackberries 
and  dewberries,  is  contained  in  Bailey's  "Evolution 
of  our  Native  Fruits." 


RUBUS,    LINN.— BRAMBLE 

Calyx  persistent,  5-parted,  without  bractlets  ;  tube  short  and 
open.  Petals  5,  deciduous.  Stamens  numerous.  Achenes  usu- 
ally numerous,  with  2  collateral  suspended  ovules  in  each  cell, 
one  of  which  is  abortive,  becoming  small  drupes.  Styles  nearly 
terminal,  stigma  simple  or  obtuse.  Receptacle  spongy  or  suc- 
culent, convex,  persistent  or  deciduous.  Perennial  herbs  or 
somewhat  woody,  erect  or  trailing,  often  prickly,  leaves  simple 
or  3  -  5  foliolate,  with  stipules  adnate  to  the  petioles;  flowers 
mostly  white,  reddish  in  a  few  species,  solitary  or  in  clusters; 
fruit  usually  edible,  black,  red  or  yellowish. 

The  genus  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from  the  Latin  word 
ruber,  meaning  red.  Although  represented  by  many  species  in 

(303) 


304  BUSH-FRUITS 

North  America,  it  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  Old  World, 
where  the  botany  of  the  subject  becomes  exceedingly  complex, 
owing  to  the  endless  variety  and  frequent  intermixture  of  forms. 
The  following  list  includes  only  species  native  to  North  America 
north  of  Mexico,  and  such  European  and  Asiatic  species  as  are 
known  to  be  in  cultivation  in  the  United  States. 

A.  Fruit  somewhat  hemispherical,  concave  beneath,  parting  from 
the    receptacle   when   ripe  ;     drupelets   sometimes    few   in 
number,   falling  away  separately   (Raspberries). 
B.  Leaves  simple;  flowers  large;  prickles  none;   fruit  and 

receptacle  flat  and  broad. 

0.  Stems  ascending,  soft-woody.     Nos.  1,  2,  3. 
cc.  Stems  above  ground  nearly  or  quite  herbaceous;  plants 

low  and  delicate.     4,  5,  6. 
BB.  Leaves  simple;  flowers  small;  stems  more  or  less  prickly. 

c.  Stems  frutescent,  low  and  trailing.     7. 
cc.  Stems  upright,  shrubby.     8,  9. 

BBB.  Leaves  compound,  of  3-5  pinnate  or  pedate  leaflets. 
c.  Stems  annual,  herbaceous;  fruit  usually  of  few  grains. 

D.  Unarmed.     10,  11,  12. 

DD.  Armed  with  minute  slender  prickles.     13. 
cc.  Stems  biennial  and  woody,  prickly ;  receptacle  oblong. 
D.  Fruit   hemispherical;    petals  small,    erect,  white. 

14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19. 

DD.  Fruit  oblong;  petals  large,  red.     20. 
BBBB.  Leaves  pinnate,  evergreen:    flowers    double.     21. 
AA.  Fruit,   or   collective  drupelets,    adhering   to    the    juicy    pro- 
longed   receptacle,    mostly    ovate    or    oblong    and    black; 
flowers  white. 
B.  Stems  upright  ;    plant  propagating  by  suckers.     22,  23, 

24,  25,  26. 

BB.  Stems  trailing;  plant  propagating  by  tips.      27,  28,  29, 
30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35. 

1.  RUBUS  ODORATUS,  Linn. — Purple -flowering  raspberry.  Thimble- 
berry,  Mulberry  (erroneously). 

Stem  shrubby,  erect,  3-5  feet  (9-15  decimeters)  high, 
branched;  leaves  large,  cordate  at  base,  3-5  lobed,  the  middle 
one  often  prolonged,  mucronately  serrulate -toothed;  stipules 
nearly  free,  deciduous,  peduncles  and  calyx  densely  clothed  with 
purplish,  very  clammy,  glandular  hairs,  extending  to  upper  parts 
of  stem;  peduncles  many-flowered,  compound;  flowers  very 
large,  -  sepals  tipped  with  a  long  appendage,  as  long  as  the 


ROCK?    MOUNTAIN   THIMBLEBERRY 


305 


segment,  and  sometimes  dilated;  petals  broadly  obovate,  pur- 
plish rose-color,  longer  than  the  sepals;  fruit  broad  and  flat, 
red,  well -flavored.  ( Fig.  49.) 

Original  distribution.  —  Nova  Scotia  to  Florida  and  west  to 
Michigan. 

A  form  with  oblong- lanceolate  leaf  lobes,  smaller  and  more 
compact  inflorescence,  and  smaller  fruit  of  a  "more  decided 


Fig.  49.      Eulut  odoratus 


musky  taste,"  was  described  from  West  Virginia  by  Millspaugh 
as  var.  Columbianus,  in  1892.     (Bull.  24,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.) 

For  the  position  which  this  species  holds  in  cultivation,  see 
Chapter  VI. 

2.  E.    PARVIFLORUS,  Nutt.  —  Eocky  Mountain   Thimbleberry.      R. 
Nutkanus,  Mocino.     E.  Calif ornicus,  O.  Kuntze. 

Stems  erect  or  drooping,  3-8  feet  (1-2.5  meters)  high;  bark 
green  and  smooth,  or  more  or  less  glandular  pubescent,  becom- 
ing brown  and  shreddy;  leaves  palmately  5-lobed,  lower  lobes 
smaller  or  equal,  cordate  at  base,  unequally  serrate,  4-12  inches 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Fig.  50.       Rubus  parvtforus     (X%) 

(10-30  cm.)  broad;  the  lobes  acute  or  acuminate,  glabrous  or 
somewhat  tomentose,  the  veins  beneath,  also  the  petioles  and 
peduncles,  usually  more  or  less  hispid  with  gland-tipped  hairs, 
stipules  lanceolate,  acuminate;  flowers  commonly  few,  white, 
1-2  inches  (2.5-5  cm.)  broad;  calyx  glandular  pubescent  or 
tomentose;  sepals  acute,  terminating  with  a  glandular  linear 
cusp,  about  as  long  as  the  petals;  carpels  numerous,  tomentose; 
fruit  red,  large,  hemispherical,  sweet  and  pleasant.  (Fig.  50.) 

Pound  in  shaded  places  from    Monterey  to  Alaska  and  east- 
ward to  New  Mexico  and  Lake  Superior. 


A  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  BRAMBLE        307 

In  California  it  becomes  more  tomentose,  especially  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  (var.  velutinus  [Hook  &  Arn.]  Brewer). 

This  is  practically  a  white -flowered  E.  odoratus,  its  general 
character  being  otherwise  much  the  same.  In  Europe  it  has  been 
sometimes  mentioned  in  gardening  journals  as  R.  odoratus  var. 
alba.  It  is  an  attractive  shrub,  well  worthy  of  cultivation.  Al- 
though found  in  severe  climates,  it  has  not  proved  hardy  at  the 
Arnold  Arboretum.*  It  was  there  grown  from  seeds  collected  in 
a  mild  climate,  which  may  have  rendered  the  plants  tender.  This 
is  called  Salmon-berry  in  Gray's  Botany  of  California,  but  that 
name  appears  to  belong  properly  to  B.  spectabilis  of  the  Pacific 
coast. 

3.  E.  DELICIOSUS,  uames.     E.  Neo  Mexicanus,  Gray. 

Stem  woody,  3-4  feet  (9-12  decimeters)  high,  branched,  erect, 
smooth,  or  with  bark  loosened  and  shredded  ;  petioles  and  young 
shoots  red  ;  leaves  reniform- orbicular,  slightly  rugose,  very  mi- 
nutely glandular,  somewhat  3-5  lobed,  unequally  and  oftener 
finely  serrate,  1-2  inches  (2.5-5  cm.)  broad;  peduncles,  petioles 
and  calyx  slightly  pubescent,  but  not  glandular  ;  stipules  lanceo- 
late, acuminate  ;  peduncles  mostly  one-flowered  ;  flowers  white, 
1-2  inches  (2.5-5  cm.)  broad  ;  sepals  oval  or  ovate-lanceolate, 
appendage  linear  or  slightly  dilated,  shorter  than  the  segments  ; 
petals  obovate,  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  sepals;  fruit  pur- 
plish or  dirty  wine-colored,  hemispherical,  drupes  large  and  soft, 
resembling  a  red  raspberry  (Fig.  51). 

Original  distribution.— Sources  of  the  Missouri  and  canons  of 
the  Colorado. 

The  fruit  of  this  beautiful  Rocky  Mountain  species  was  origi- 
nally described  as  "delicious,"  but  later  observers  do  not  concur 
in  the  opinion.  The  seeds  are  large,  covered  with  only  a  thin 
pulp,  and  the  flavor  is  insipid.  It  was  originally  discovered  by 
Professor  James,  in  1822,  and  has  long  been  known  in  England, 
where  it  appears  to  be  appreciated.  Excellent  figures  have  ap- 
peared in  English  horticultural  and  botanical  journals.  Garden- 
ers there  report  success  in  propagating  it  by  seeds,  root-cuttings 
and  stem -cuttings.  It  has  been  thoroughly  tested  at  the  Arnold 
Arboretum  and  found  perfectly  hardly,  although  it  seldom  bears 
fruit.  It  does  not  throw  up  suckers  from  the  root,  and  is  difficult 


*Garden  and  Forest,  1:261. 


308  BUSH-FRUITS 

to  propagate  ;  seeds  or  stem  cuttings  are  recommended  as  the 
most  satisfactory  means,  although  the  latter  do  not  take  root 
readily.*  On  the  Plains  it  suffers  from  the  summer  sun  and  dry- 
ing winds. 

4.  R.  CHAMJSMORUS,  Linn.— Cloud-berry.     Baked-apple  Berry. 

Low,  monoscious,  or  sometimes  dioecious;  stem  simple,  herba- 
ceous, arising  from  a  frutescent,  creeping  or  subterranean  one, 
2-3-leaved,  1-flowered  ;  leaves  roundish  reniform,  somewhat 
5-lobed,  lobes  rounded  or  obtuse,  irregularly  serrate,  wrinkled; 
calyx  pubescent;  sepals  oval,  obtuse,  with  a  very  slight  point; 
petals  obovate,  white,  longer  than  the  sepals  ;  fruit  of  few 
grains,  amber-colored  (Fig.  52). 

Widely  distributed  throughout  the  arctic  regions  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. It  occurs  in  the  Atlantic  and  Rocky  Mountain  alpine 
regions,  but  not  in  the  Pacific  alpine  regions. 

This  species  is  interesting  and  widely  known.  In  England  it 
is  popularly  known  as  "Averon"  or  "Mountain  Bramble,"  and  in 
Scandinavia  as  "Grapes  of  the  North."  The  male  and  female 
flowers  are  borne  on  separate  stems,  which  are  usually,  though  not 
always,  connected  at  or  beneath  the  ground  with  a  trailing  stem 
or  rootstock.  In  Northern  Denmark  and  Sweden  its  fruit  is  im- 
portant, large  quantities  being  gathered  and  sold  in  the  markets. 
In  Scotland  it  is  found  on  the  Grampian  Hills,  and  it  was  the  badge 
of  the  MacFarlane  clan.  Prize  essays  concerning  it  have  appeared 
in  the  transactions  of  the  Highland  society.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  cultivate  it  in  Europe,  but  with  poor  success. 

5.  B.  LASIOCOCCUS,  Gray. 

"Between  E.  pedatus  and  R.  Chamcemorus.  Stems  herbaceous, 
dwarf,  ashy- puberulent;  stipules  ovate,  subscarious;  leaves  round- 
cordate,  3-5-lobed,  the  lobes  slightly  trisected,  lobes  and  segments 
very  obtuse,  somewhat  doubly  dentate;  peduncles  branching, 
short,  few  leaved,  bearing  1-2  terminal  flowers;  calyx  segments 
ovate,  acuminate,  entire;  petals  obovate,. white,  shorter  than  the 
sepals;  ovaries  few  (5-9),  drupelets  fleshy  and  tomentose." — Gray, 
Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  17:  (1882)  201. 

Described  from  Oregon,  near  Mt.  Hood. 

Resembles  R.  pedatus,  but  is  less  slender,  with  thicker  leaves, 
which  are  seldom  divided,  flowers  little  larger,  petals  broader. 

*  Garden  and  Forest,  1:  225-3:  336. 


Fig.  51.    Rubus  deliciosus  (X%).  Fig  52.    RuMis  Chamcemorus  (XI). 


310  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  canescent,  dense  tomentum  of  the  ovaries  is  seen,  even  on  the 
mature  drupelets. 

6.  E.  STELLATUS,  Smith. 

Stem  herbaceous,  simple,  1 -flowered,  leaves  cordate,  rugose, 
deeply  3-lobed  or  3-parted,  often  compound,  serrate;  stipules 
ovate,  acute  or  obtuse;  peduncles  short;  segments  of  the  calyx 
linear-lanceolate  or  linear,  sometimes  slightly  spatulate ;  petals 
oblong,  erect. 

Distribution.— Eehrmg  region,  Wrangel  Land,  Aleutian  Islands. 

7.  R.  NIVALIS,  Dougl. 

Low,  not  more  than  6  inches  (1.5  decimeters)  high,  from  a 
long,  trailing,  frutescent  stem;  spines  rather  stout,  recurved; 
leaves  cordate,  3-lobed,  very  rarely  almost  compound,  very  sharply 
toothed,  glabrous,  the  petioles  and  veins  armed  with  recurved 
prickles,  stipules  ovate,  acute,  prominent,  often  toothed;  pe- 
duncles short,  1-  or  2-flowered;  calyx  lobes  lanceolate,  pubescent; 
petals  small,  lanceolate,  very  acute;  fruit  red,  sour;  seeds  few, 
large  and  wrinkled. 

Distribution. — In  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  and  northward  on 
high  ridges  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system ;  also,  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains. 

This  bears  some  resemblance  to  B.  vitifolius,  out  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  that  species  by  the  simple  leaves,  sharp  petals, 
lack  of  pubescence,  and  especially  by  the  simple  inflorescence. 
Professor  Piper  writes  that  "In  deep  woods  it  never  fruits,  but  on 
open,  rocky  places  bears  an  abundance  of  sour  red  berries.  The 
plant  is  prostrate,  like  E.  vitifolius." 

8.  R.  CRAT^EGIFOLIUS,  Bunge.     Chinese  Raspberry. 

Stems  shrubby,  upright  or  drooping,  3-6  feet  (1-2  meters)  high, 
armed  with  few  straight  prickles;  leaves  glabrate,  cordate,  ovate, 
acute,  3-5  lobed,  lower  one  smallest,  middle  lobe  long,  acuminate, 
often  narrower  at  base,  lateral  lobes  oblique,  all  doubly  serrate, 
petioles  and  veins  beneath  armed  with  scattering,  minute,  re- 
curved prickles ;  stipules  linear,  scarious,  leafy  shoots  terminating 
in  a  several -flowered,  cymose  cluster;  flowers  white,  nearly  half 
an  inch  broad,  inconspicuous;  calyx  slightly  pubescent,  lobes 
triangular,  acuminate,  bearing  glandular  tipped  hairs  along  the 
margin;  petals  small;  fruit  orange -scarlet,  nearly  hemispherical 
(Fig.  53). 

Original  distribution. — Manchuria,  Northern   China  and  Japan. 

A  further  account  of  this  species  appears  in  Chapter  VI 


MATBERRT 


311 


Fig.  53. 
cratcegifolius  (X%). 


9.  R.  MICROPHYLLUS,  Linn,  f .     B.  palmatus,  Thunb.     Mayberry. 

Spreading  bush,  4  or  5  feet  (12-15  decimeters)  high,  with  short 
stout  prickles;  leaves  small,  dark  green  above,  somewhat  lighter 
beneath,  silky  pubescent  on  the  veins  beneath,  3-5 -cleft,  the 
lobes  very  narrow,  acuminate,  doubly  and  sharply  serrate,  central 
lobe  much  longer  than  the  lateral  ones;  flowers  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  (20  mm.)  broad;  sepals  narrow,  acuminate;  petals 
broadly  ovate;  fruit  small,  of  little  value. 

Japan. — Said  by  Luther  Burbank  to  have  entered  into  hybrids 
which  he  considers  valuable ;  but  otherwise  unknown  in  this  coun- 
try. The  fruit  is  occasionally  eaten  by  the  Japanese, 


312 


BUSH-FRUITS 


10.  R.  ARCTICUS,  Linn. 

Stem  low,  herbaceous,  sometimes  dioecious,  slightly  pubescent, 
mostly  erect,  1-2-flowered;  leaves  trifoliolate ;  leaflets  rhombic- 
ovate  or  obovate,  coarsely  and  often  doubly  serrate,  slightly  petio- 
late;  flowers  rose  -  colored,  %-l  inch  (12-25  mm.)  broad;  calyx 
slightly  pubescent,  sepals  lanceolate,  sometimes  slightly  dilated  at 
the  tip,  nearly  as  long  as  the  petals;  petals  obovate  to  oblanceo- 
late;  fruit  amber- colored,  pleasant  (Fig.  54). 

VAR.     GRANDIFLORUS,     Ledeb.      Stem    shorter,    leaflets    more 


Fig.  54. 
Rubus  arcticus  (XI). 


rounded,    lateral    ones    sessile;    petals    larger,    obovate,    oblong; 
sepals  narrower,  often  much  elongated. 

Distribution. — Northern  countries  of  the  three  continents.  In 
America  it  occurs  in  the  Eocky  Mountain  and  Pacific,  but  not  in 
the  Atlantic  alpine  region. 


PACIFIC   COAST  RASPBERRY 


313 


This  pretty  little  plant  was  a  favorite  of  Linnaeus,  who  called 
it  a  "beneficent  plant,"  and  said  that  he  would  indeed  be  "un- 
grateful did  he  not  give  a  full  description  of  it,  since  the  vinous 
nectar  of  its  berries  frequently  recruited  his  spirits  when  almost 
prostrate  with  hunger  and  fatigue." 
11.  E.  PEDATUS,  Smith. 

Stems  slender,  pubescent,  creeping  or  filiform;    leaves  smooth 
or  sparingly  villous ;    leaflets  cuneate-obovate,   not   exceeding  an 


Fig.  55.    Rubus  pedatus  (X%). 

inch  in  length,  incisely  toothed,  the  lateral  ones  often  parted  to 
the  base;  stipules  ovate -oblong,  scarious,  persistent;  peduncles 
long  and  slender,  bearing  two  bracts  which  are  sometimes  midway 
between  base  and  tip;  mostly  1- flowered;  flowers  white  %-% 
inch  (12-20  mm.)  broad:  sepals  ovate -'lanceolate,  entire  or  incised, 
about  as  long  as  the  petals,  at  length  reflexed;  petals  sessile,  nar- 
rowly obovate ;  fruit  consisting  of  3-6  large  red,  pulpy  drupelets 
(Fig.  55). 

Pacific  coast  from  San  Francisco  to  Alaska,  and  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  between  latitude  52°  and  56°. 

The  fruit  of  this  plant  lacks  the  protuberant  receptacle  com- 
mon to  other  species  of  Eubus,  thus  approaching  the  genus  Dali- 
barda. 


314  BUSH-FRUITS 

12.  R.    AMERICANUS    (Pers.),    Britton.— Dwarf    Raspberry.      E. 

triflorus,    Richardson. 

Stems  ascending,  6-12  inches  (1.5-3  decimeters)  high,  or  trail- 
ing, suffruticose  at  base,  smooth  or  minutely  pubescent,  sterile 
ones  sometimes  rooting  at  the  tips;  leaves  3- (rarely  pedately  5) 
foliolate,  on  long  slender  petioles;  leaflets  thin,  glabrate,  or 
pubescent  beneath,  rhombic  ovate  or  ovate-lanceolate,  acute  at 
both  ends,  often  acuminate,  coarsely  and  somewhat  doubly  ser- 
rate; the  terminal  one  petiolate;  stipules  ovate  or  oblong, 
entire ;  peduncles  mostly  terminal,  1-3  flowered ;  pedicels  and 
base  of  calyx  bearing  glandular  tipped  hairs;  sepals  ovate - 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  tomentose  toward  the  tips,  at  length 
reflexed;  fruit  small,  red  (Fig.  56). 

Labrador  to  New  Jersey,  and  west  to  Colorado. 

This  is  a  pretty  little  plant  of  eastern  woods. 

13.  R.  SAXATILIS,  Linn. 

Stems  pubescent,  sparsely  beset  with  minute  prickles;  sterile 
shoots,  long,  slender,  creeping,  terete,  often  rooting  at  the  tip 
in  autumn;  flowering  stems  erect,  mostly  simple,  4-12  inches 
(1-3  decimeters)  high;  leaves  3-foliolate,  on  long  petioles,  both 
sides  green  and  slightly  pubescent;  leaflets  ovate  or  rhombic - 
ovate,  obtuse  at  both  ends  or  acute  at  the  apex,  coarsely  den- 
tate, middle  one  long,  lateral  ones  short-petiolate ;  stipules  of 
flowering  stems  ovate,  of  sterile  ones  linear;  inflorescence 
cymose,  3-10  flowered,  peduncles  terminal  and  axillary;  pedicels 
prickly;  calyx  pubescent,  especially  within,  but  not  glandular; 
sepals  ovate  or  lanceolate,  acuminate,  commonly  no  longer  than 
the  petals,  at  length  reflexed;  petals  small,  erect,  spatulate, 
white;  fruit  of  1-6  large  grains,  not  coherent,  deep  red;  seeds 
large,  slightly  wrinkled. 

Found  in  Greenland,  and  widely  distributed  in  Europe,  but 
apparently  does  not  occur  on  the  American  continent  proper. 

A  French  work  entitled  Traite  des  Plantes  Fourragdres  men- 
tions this  as  a  good  forage  plant,  either  fresh  or  dry. 

14.  R.  ID^US,  Linn.     European  Raspberry. 

Plant  usually  stiff,  erect,  and  light  colored,  the  main  stems 
bearing  nearly  straight,  slender  prickles;  flowering  shoots,  peti- 
oles, veins,  pedicels  and  calyx  finely  pubescent,  but  not  glandular, 
and  sparsely  beset  with  firm,  recurved  prickles;  leaves  of  bearing 
wood  3-foliolate,  of  new  canes  mostly  5-foliolate,  thicker  than  in 
R.  strigosus,  whitened -downy  beneath,  and  usually  somewhat 
wrinkled;  middle  leaflet  ovate,  petiolate;  lateral  ones  ovate-lan- 
ceolate, sessile,  cut-serrate;  inflorescence  sub -corymbose;  pedi- 


316 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Fie.  57.    Rubus  Idceus  (X%). 

eels  short,  ascending,  aggregated  above ;  calyx  tomentose ;  sepals 
ovate-lanceolate,  acuminate,  longer  than  the  petals,  at  length 
recurved;  fruit  dark  red  or  yellow,  produced  more  or  less  con- 
tinuously throughout  the  season  (Fig.  57). 

Original  distribution.— Common  throughout  Europe  and  western 
Asia. 

This  is  the  parent  of  the  older  garden  varieties   which    were 
imported  from  Europe,  and  which  ushered  in  raspberry  growing  in 


AMERICAN  H ED   RASPBERRY 


317 


America.     For  a  discussion  of  the  characteristics  of  the  species 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  fruit-grower,  see  Chapter  VII. 
15.  R.  STRIHOSUS,  Michx.     American  Bed  Raspberry. 

Stems  more  slender  and  flexible  than    in  Rubus  Idceus,  usu- 
ally brown  or  reddish  brown,  somewhat  glaucous;   beset  with  stiff, 


Fig.  58.    Rubus  strigosus  (X%). 

straight  prickles;  flowering  shoots,  pedicels,  calyx  and  petioles 
hirsute,  with  glandular-tipped  hairs  in  the  wild  type,  though 
largely  disappearing  in  cultivation;  leaves  of  bearing  canes  3- 
foliolate,  of  young  canes  mostly  5-foliolate ;  middle  leaflet  ovate, 
petiolate,  lateral  ones  ovate-lanceolate,  sessile,  cut-serrate  ;  in- 
florescence racemose,  peduncles  usually  scattered,  mostly  slender 
and  drooping ;  calyx  slightly  pubescent  or  hirsute ;  fruit  light  red, 
produced  less  continuously  than  in  Rubus  Idceus  (Fig.  58) . 


318  B  USH-FJR  HITS 

Original  distribution. — North  Carolina  to  New  Mexico  and  far 
northward.  Northeastern  Asia,  Japan  to  Altai  and  the  Himalayas. 

This  species  is  closely  related  to  R.  Idceus,  though  wild  forms 
can  be  readily  separated  by  botanical  characters.  In  cultivation 
these  characters  largely  disappear.  For  the  position  of  the  species 
in  the  pomological  world,  see  Chapter  VII. 

A  white  variety  of  R.  strigosus  occurs  rarely,  and  plants  of  it, 
received  from  A.  S.  Fuller,  are  growing  in  the  Cornell  University 
gardens.  The  form  is  also  represented  in  cultivation  by  the 
variety  known  as  Meredith  Queen.  The  fruit  is  small,  soft, 
amber-white,  with  prominent  grooved  drupes. 
16.  EUBUS  NEGLECTUS,  Peck.  Purple -cane  Kaspberry. 

Habit  various,  but  with  the  stem  typically  long  and  rooting  at 
the  tip,  glaucous,  more  or  less  armed  with  prickles ;  leaves  of 
bearing  canes  3-foliolate,  of  young  canes  3-5-foliolate,  coarsely 
and  irregularly  serrate,  middle  leaflet  petiolate,  lateral  ones  sessile; 
inflorescence  racemose -cymose;  peduncles  mostly  erect,  armed 
with  firm,  mostly  recurved  prickles,  and  in  wild  forms  more  or 
less  hirsute  with  glandular  hairs  when  young,  lower  ones  mostly 
unequally  branched;  blooms  usually  somewhat  aggregated  at  the 
tip,  sepals  ovate,  acuminate,  scarcely  longer  than  the  petals; 
fruit  varying  from  dull  purple  to  dark  red,  or  even  yellowish. 

Original  distribution. — Probably  quite  generally  distributed  with 
the  two  species  which  it  connects. 

To  this  form  belong  the  Purple -cane  raspberries  of  cultivation. 
By  many  the  form  is  thought  to  be  of  hybrid  origin,  while  others 
regard  it  as  a  distinct  species.  From  specimens  before  me  I  have 
been  able  to  arrange  a  series  from  wild  plants  and  another  from 
cultivated  forms,  each  representing  an  almost  perfect  gradation 
from  R.  strigosus  to  R.  occidentalis,  and  I  am  led  to  believe  that 
all  are  of  hybrid  origin.  A  further  discussion  of  the  group,  as 
found  in  cultivation,  will  be  found  in  Chapter  VII. 

R.  STRIGOSUS  X  OCCIDENTALIS  Var.    LEUCODERMIS. 

Flowering  shoots,  petioles,  pedicels,  and  calyx  hirsute,  with 
glandular  tipped  hairs,  also  beset  with  long,  slender,  straight  or 
recurved  prickles;  leaves  of  bearing  canes  3-foliolate,  middle 
leaflet  petiolate,  lateral  ones  sessile,  mostly  ovate,  sharply  cut- 
serrate;  inflorescence  racemose,  somewhat  aggregated;  calyx 
somewhat  pubescent  and  hirsute,  reddish  purple  within,  as  are 
also  the  base  of  the  styles. 


THE  BLACK  RASPBERRY  319 

This  form  holds  the  same  position  between  the  western  repre- 
sentatives of  the  red  and  black  raspberry  that  R.  neglectus  does 
between  the  eastern  ones.  It  was  found  growing  with  R.  occiden- 
talis  var.  leucodermis  and  R.  strigosus  at  Sicamous,  B.  C.,  in  1889, 
by  Professor  J.  M.  Macoun,  who  writes  that  it  very  much  resem- 
bles R.  neglectus,  the  fruit  being  abundant,  purplish  in  color, 
lacking  in  firmness,  but  pleasant. 

17.  R.  OCOIDENTALIS,  L.     Black  Raspberry,  Thimbleberry. 

Canes  long,  recurved,  at  length  rooting  at  the  tips,  conspicu- 
ously glaucous,  armed  with  strong  recurved  prickles;  leaflets  3, 
both  on  bearing  canes  and  young  shoots  (rarely  5  on  the 
latter),  ovate,  pointed,  coarsely  and  doubly  serrate,  whitened- 
downy  beneath,  the  lateral  ones  mostly  somewhat  stalked;  inflo- 
rescence cymose;  peduncles  mostly  aggregated  in  a  close  cluster 
at  the  tip,  short,  stiff,  erect,  bearing  stiff  recurved  prickles, 
rarely  with  straight  bristles  also ;  petals  shorter  than  the  sepals ; 
fruit  depressed,  firm  and  dense,  black,  rarely  yellow. 

Original  distribution. — Mountains  of  Georgia  westward  to  Mis- 
souri and  the  sources  of  the  Oregon,  and  far  northward  into 
British  America. 

This  is  to-day  the  most  important  raspberry  of  cultivation. 

Var.  LEUCODERMIS  (Dougl.).—  R.  leucodermis,  Dougl. 

Leaflets  coarsely  dentate -serrate,  often  approaching  incised - 
serrate ;  prickles  strong  and  more  hooked ;  fruit  reddish  black, 
with  a  gray  bloom  (Fig.  59). 

Found  in  the  mountains  of  Arizona,  California,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington and  northern  Utah. 

This  has  long  stood  as  a  distinct  species,  but  forms  of  R. 
occidentalis  occur  which  show  the  same  coarse  serration  of  leaves, 
and  there  is  an  eastern  yellow- fruited  form  which  has  as  strong 
and  prominently  hooked  prickles.  Professor  Piper  writes:  "I 
agree  with  Focke  in  considering  this  merely  a  variety  of  R.  occi- 
dentalis. I  have  never  seen  it  with  r yellow'  fruit,  as  described 
in  Botany  of  California.  The  fruit  is  dark  wine-red,  nearly 
black,  and  of  excellent  flavor." 

18.  R.  HESPERIUS,  Piper. 

"Habit  of  R.  leucodermis;  1-2  meters  high;  young  stems 
glaucous,  older  ones  brownish  and  shining,  densely  beset  with 
strong  prickles,  which  are  straight  on  the  larger  branches 


Fig.  59.    Rubus  ocddentalis  var.  leucodermis  (X%). 


JAPANESE    WINEBERRT  321 

but  more  or  less  recurved  on  the  smaller  ones;  leaves  trifo- 
liolate,  or  on  young,  vigorous  shoots  pedately  5-foliolate;  leaf- 
lets 5-8  cm.  long,  ovate,  acuminate,  thickish,  coarsely  and 
doubly  serrate,  perfectly  green  and  glabrous  on  both  sides,  not 
shiny,  armed  on  the  midrib  beneath,  and  even  on  the  lateral 
veins,  with  recurved  or  straight  prickles ;  lateral  leaflets  on 
very  short,  1-2  mm.  long  petioles;  terminal  leaflet  sometimes 
3-lobed;  petioles  stout,  usually  glaucous,  2-5  cm.  long,  armed 
with  stout  recurved  prickles;  stipules  setaceous,  about  8  mm. 
long;  flowers  in  terminal  corymbs,  or  a  few  in  the  axils  of  the 
upper  leaves,  these  solitary  .or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three; 
peduncles  and  pedicels  stout  and  more  densely  armed  than  the 
branchlets;  sepals  in  fruit  green,  glabrous,  deltoid-lanceolate, 
long-acuminate,  12  mm.  long;  petals  and  stamens  not  seen; 
fruit  nearly  black,  without  bloom,  dry  and  rather  tasteless; 
young  carpels  neither  glaucous  nor  tomentose;  seeds  large. 

"Closely  related  to  E.  leucodermis,  Dougl.,  and  E.  occidentalis, 
Linn.,  from  both  of  which  it  is  readily  distinguished  by  the 
entire  absence  of  pubescence  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
It  is  also  much  more  strongly  and  densely  armed  than  either. 

"The  plant  occurs  sparingly  in  Snake  River  canon,  and 
Wawawai  and  Almota,  Whitman  county,  Washington.  It  grows 
usually  along  stream  banks,  but  occasionally  in  crevices  of  moist 
cliffs." — Piper. 

19.  R.  PHCENICOLASIUS,  Maximowicz.      Japanese  Wineberry,  Jap- 
anese Raspberry.     R.  occidentalis,  Thunb. 

Stems  3-5  feet  (9-15  decimeters)  high,  densely  hirsute  with 
reddish,  glandular-tipped  hairs,  and  occasional  long  straight 
prickles,  which  become  recurved  on  the  petioles  and  veins  be- 
neath the  leaves;  leaflets  3,  broadly  ovate,  acuminate,  incised- 
serrate,  whitened -downy  beneath,  the  middle  one  often  somewhat 
3-lobed,  petiolate,  and  much  the  larger,  the  lateral  ones  sessile; 
inflorescence  paniculate,  pedicels  short,  erect,  calyx  very  hairy, 
closely  clasping  the  fruit  till  nearly  mature,  when  it  becomes 
horizontally  withdrawn;  sepals  lanceolate,  awl-pointed,  stamens 
withdrawing  with  the  calyx;  petals  minute,  obovate;  fruit  small, 
red,  acrid,  drupes  small,  weakly  coherent;  seeds  small,  smooth, 
easily  crushed. 

Original  distribution. — Upon  the  Islands  of  Yezo  and  Nipon, 
in  Japan. 

The  species  was  described  in  1872,  and  in  1880  was  figured  in 
the  Botanical  Magazine*  from  plants  grown  at  Kew.  Frequent 

*t.  6479. 
u 


322  BUSH-FRUITS 

mention  of  it  is  found  in  both  English  and  American  horticultural 
journals  since  that  date.  For  a  discussion  of  its  horticultural 
qualities,  see  Chapter  VI. 

20.  R.  SPECTABILIS,  Pursh. — Salmonberry. 

Stems  rather  robust,  5-10  feet  (15-30  decimeters)  high,  spar- 
ingly armed  with  straight  or  ascending  prickles;  leaves  3- 
foliolate,  or  occasionally  simple,  thin,  glabrate  beneath;  leaflets 
petiolate,  ovate,  acute  or  acuminate,  doubly  incised -serrate,  and 
often  2-3-lobed,  the  veins  beneath,  also  the  petioles  and  peduncles 
sparingly  villous- pubescent;  stipules  linear;  flowers  solitary  or  in 
pairs,  red  or  purple,  large  and  showy;  sepals  broadly  ovate,  acute, 
or  with  a  short  acumination,  much  shorter  than  the  petals ;  fruit 
large,  sub-conical,  red  or  yellow;  styles  long,  persistent  (Fig.  60). 

Original  distribution. — The  Pacific  coast  from  California  north- 
ward to  Alaska. 

Professor  C.  V.  Piper,  of  the  Washington  Agricultural  College, 
writes:  "This  is  the  < Salmonberry, '  and  not  B.  parviftorus,  as  per 
Botany  of  California.  There  are  two  varieties,  one  with  salmon- 
colored  berries,  whence  the  name;  the  other  with  dark  wine-red 
berries.  The  former  are  better  flavored,  the  latter  having  a  bitter 
aftertaste.  Both  occur  growing  together,  and  are  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished save  by  the  color  of  the  fruit.  The  plant  is  confined  to 
swamps  and  stream  banks." 

A  more  or  less  densely  tomentose  and  silky  form  is  also  re- 
corded— Var.  Menziesii  (Hook),  Watson. 

This  plant  was  introduced  in  England  in  1827,  and  has  been 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  horticultural  journals  of  that  country. 
According  to  the  Journal  of  Botany*  it  has  become  naturalized  in 
Kent,  where  it  is  locally  known  as  "Woodman's  Rose."  For  fur- 
ther mention  of  it,  see  Chapter  VI. 

21.  R.  ROS^FOLIUS,  Smith. — Rose -leaved  Raspberry.  "Strawberry- 

Raspberry."  B.  sorbifolius,  Maxim.  (See  Fig.  28,  p.  149.) 
A  low  plant  1-2  feet  (3-6  decimeters)  high,  forming  dense 
clumps  from  the  numerous  suckers  produced ;  stems  and  branches 
covered  with  recurved  prickles;  leaves  evergreen  in  its  native 
habitat,  pinnate,  leaflets  5-7,  or  3  at  the  ends  of  the  flowering 
shoots,  sessile  or  the  end  one  petiolate,  •  lanceolate,  acuminate, 
sharply  and  doubly  serrate,  the  under  side  green,  with  scarcely 


*Vol.  19,  p.  251. 


ROSE-LEAVED    RASPBERRY 


323 


Fig.  60.    Rubus  spectabilis  (X%). 


visible  soft  glandular  hairs  or  dots;  flowers  1-3  in  terminal  clusters, 
double  in  the  cultivated  form,  white,  rose-like,  1-2  inches 
(25-50  mm.)  broad,  borne  in  succession;  fruit  of  the  wild  form  red 
or  yellow,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  made  up  of  many  small 
carpels. 

Original  distribution. — Japan,  China  and  the  East  Indies. 

For  an  account  of  E.  roscefolius  in  cultivation,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Chapter  VI. 


324  BUSH-FRUITS 

22.  R.  NIGROBACCUS,  Bailey.  R.  villosus,  authors,  not  Ait.  Com- 
mon or  High  Blackberry.  Long  Blackberry.* 

Stems  shrubby,  1-8  feet  (3-25  decimeters)  high,  furrowed  or 
terete,  upright  or  reclining,  armed  with  stout  curved  prickles; 
young  branches,  peduncles,  stipules,  petioles  and  veins  beneath 
the  leaves  pubescent,  and  bearing  numerous  glandular  tipped 
hairs;  leaflets  mostly  3  on  fruiting  canes,  5  on  young  canes,  ovate 
or  oblong,  pointed,  unequally  and  sharply  serrate,  the  terminal 
one  petiolate,  the  lateral  ones  sessile  or  short  petiolate;  inflores- 
cence racemose,  elongated,  nearly  or  quite  leafless;  flowers  nu- 
merous, conspicuous;  bracts  short;  sepals  glandular,  ovate,  with 
a  long,  linear  point,  which  is  often  dilated;  petals  obovate- oblong, 
longer  than  the  sepals ;  fruit  narrow,  varying  from  nearly  globular 
to  long- oblong,  dull  color,  sweet;  drupelets  small,  closely  packed. 

Original  distribution.— Common  throughout  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  United  States  and  far  northward  in  British  America. 

Var.  SATIVUS,  Bailey. 

Clusters  fewer  flowered;  pedicels  oblique;  fruit  short  and 
thick,  glossy  black,  sour  until  very  ripe;  drupelets  fewer,  large, 
soft,  loosely  and  irregularly  placed. 

Found  in  dry,  open  places.  The  type  most  common  in  culti- 
vation, as  represented  by  Snyder,  Kittatinny  and  Agawam. 

Var.  ALBINUS,  Bailey.     White  Blackberry. 

Canes  terete,  yellowish  green;  leaflets  mostly  3,  even  on  young 
canes;  fruit  pinkish  cream  or  amber  colored,  sweet.  Other  char- 
acters closely  resembling  the  specific  type. 

Sparingly  found  wild,  associated  with  the  species.     Though  in- 
troduced into  cultivation  at  times,  it  has  never  proved  valuable. 
R.  NIGROBACCUS  X  VILLOSUS.     Blackberry -Dewberry  hybrid. 

Stems  decumbent  or  ascending,  rarely  rooting  at  the  tip, 
terete,  sparingly  armed  with  short,  straight  prickles;  peduncles 
and  petioles  pubescent  but  rarely  glandular.  Leaflets  usually  3, 
both  on  young  and  fruiting  canes,  simple  in  the  flower  cluster, 
oval,  acuminate,  very  deeply,  sharply  and  irregularly  incised,  the 
lateral  ones  sessile;  inflorescence  cymose,  4-8  flowered,  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  simple,  broadly  oval  or  ovate  leaves ;  sepals 
ovate,  acuminate,  rarely  expanded  at  the  tip,  slightly  tomentose 
within  and  on  the  margin ;  petals  longer  than  the  sepals ;  fruits 
globular  or  slightly  oblong,  good,  bright  black;  drupelets  large 
and  prominent. 

*The  nomenclature  of  the  blackberries  and  dewberries  is  taken  from  Bailey's 
monograph  in  "Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits." 


SLA  CKBERR  T-DE  WBERR  Y 


325 


Fig.  61.    Snyder.— Rubus  nigrobaccus  var.  sativus. 

More  or  less  commonly  associated  with  the  two  parent  species, 
at  least  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

At  first  sight  this  type  appears  like  a  variety  of  B.  nigrobaccus, 
but  it  is  apparently  found  only  where  both  E.  nigrobaccus  and 
B.  villosus  are  growing.  This,  with  its  habit  of  occasionally 
rooting  at  the  tips,  and  the  fact  that  various  gradations  between 
the  two  species  often  occur,  seems  to  be  convincing  proof  of  its 
hybrid  origin.  The  type  occupies  the  same  ground  between  the 
blackberry  and  dewberry  that  B.  neglectus  does  between  the 
black  and  red  raspberry.  In  cultivation  it  is  represented  by  the 
Wilson,  Wilson  Jr.,  Thompson  Early  Mammoth,  and  others. 
This  plant  was  in  cultivation  in  Europe  early  in  the  century,  and 
was  called  Bubus  heterophyllus  by  Willdenow. 


326  BUSH-FRUITS 

Forms  of  Rubus  setosus  often  look  as  if  they  might  be  hybrids  of 
R.  nigrobaccus  and  R.  strigosus.  One  of  these  forms,  growing  in  a 
dryish  tamarack  bog  at  Lansing,  Mich.,  was  once  thought  by  Pro- 
fessor Bailey  and  others  to  be  such  a  hybrid.  It  is  as  follows : 

Stems  upright,  2-3  feet  (6-9  decimeters)  high,  terete,  sparingly 
armed  with  long,  slender,  straight  or  slightly  reflexed  prickles; 
peduncles  and  petioles  very  slightly  pubescent ;  leaflets  of  bearing 
shoots  3,  all  sessile,  of  young  shoots  mostly  5,  the  three  upper 
ones  petiolate,  broadly  oval  or  obovate,  acute  or  obtuse,  sharply 
and  irregularly  serrate;  inflorescence  cymose,  few-flowered,  leafy, 
sepals  small,  ovate,  acute,  slightly  tomentose  at  the  margins,  and 
bearing  few  minute  glandular  hairs;  petals  obovate,  twice  as  long 
as  the  sepals ;  fruit  globular  oblong,  of  few  grains,  adhering  to 
the  receptacle. 

23.  E.  ALLEGHENIENSIS,   Porter.     R.  villosus  var.  montanus,  Por- 

ter.    R.  montanus,  Porter. 

Similar  to  R.  nigrobaccus,  plant  smaller  and  more  slender, 
somewhat  less  prickly,  branches  commonly  reddish,  the  younger 
parts  very  glandular;  leaves  and  inflorescence  like  nigrobaccus; 
fruit  rather  dry,  with  a  somewhat  spicy  flavor,  small,  long,  thimble  - 
shaped,  narrowing  toward  the  tip;  drupelets  small  and  numerous. 

Found  upon  the  mountains  and  higher  lands  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  North  Carolina. 

24.  R.   ARGUTUS,  Link.       R.  frondosus,    Bigel.      R.   villosus  var. 

frondosus,  Torr. 

Plant  lower  and  more  bushy  than  R.  nigrobaccus,  younger  parts 
pubescent,  but  sometimes  scarcely  at  all  glandular;  leaves 
thicker,  rather  more  numerous  and  persisting  longer  in  the  fall ; 
leaflets  coarsely,  sharply  and  irregularly  serrate,  both  on  young 
and  fruiting  canes;  inflorescence  shorter,  more  corymbose,  the 
lower  pedicels  subtended  by  leaves  which  are  mostly  simple  and 
smaller  toward  the  tip,  giving  the  cluster  a  leafy  or  frondose  ap- 
pearance ;  flowers  smaller ;  sepals  broader,  less  attenuate ;  petals 
roundish. 

Original  distribution. — Occurs  with  the  type,  and  northward. 

Represented  in  cultivation  by  the  Early  Harvest  and  by  the 
Dorchester,  which  was  the  first  blackberry  ever  introduced. 

Var.  FLORIDUS,  Bailey.    JR.  floridus,  Tratt. 

A  form  with  very  large  flowers  in  very  short  clusters,  and 
leaves  on  the  flowering  shoots  short,  broad  and  nearly  or  quite 
obtuse.  New  Jersey  to  Alabama.  Probably  not  |in  cultivation. 


SAJTD   BLACKBERRY  327 

Var.  EANDII,  Bailey. 

"Low  and  diffuse,  1°-2X°  (3-8  decimeters)  high,  the  canes 
bearing  very  few  and  weak  prickles,  or  often  entirely  unarmed, 
very  slender  and  soft,  sometimes  appearing  as  if  nearly  herba- 
ceous ;  leaves  very  thin  and  nearly,  or  quite  smooth  beneath  and 
on  the  petioles,  the  teeth  rather  coarse  and  unequal ;  cluster  stout, 
with  one  or  two  simple  leaves  in  its  base,  not  villous,  and  very 
slightly  if  at  all  pubescent ;  flowers  half  or  less  the  size  of  those 
of  R.  nigrobaccus;  fruit  small,  dry  and  seedy." 

Original  distribution. — Woods,  Mt.  Desert,  Me.,  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Lake  Superior. 

25.  E.  CANADENSIS,  L.     Thornless  or  Mountain  Blackberry.     R. 

Millspaughii,  Britton. 

Stems  upright,  3-10  feet  (1-3  meters)  high,  more  or  less 
deeply  grooved,  reddish  brown,  perfectly  smooth  and  unarmed, 
except  for  a  few  weak  prickles  toward  the  top  and  on  the  smaller 
branches,  petioles  and  mid-veins;  branches  and  petioles  of  the 
young  canes  glabrous,  those  of  the  flowering  canes,  together 
with  the  pedicels,  pubescent,  but  not  glandular;  leaflets  of  young 
canes  5,  the  three  uppermost  with  long  and  slender  leaf-stalks, 
glabrous  above  and  beneath,  narrowly  ovate,  mostly  rounded  at 
base,  long -acuminate,  leaflets  of  bearing  canes  3,  glabrate,  often 
broader,  more  deeply  and  coarsely  serrate  and  less  acuminate ; 
stipules  of  young  canes  very  long  and  slender,  scarious ;  inflores- 
cence racemose,  pedicels  oblique,  the  lower  ones  axillary,  the 
upper  subtended  by  f oliaceous  bracts,  %  inch  or  more  in  length ; 
sepals  broadly  ovate,  whitened -downy  within,  acumination  short; 
fruit  ripening  late,  roundish,  jet  black,  with  large  and  promi- 
nent drupelets  and  a  rather  hard  core,  sour  and  sometimes  even 
bitterish,  at  least  until  very  ripe. 

Found  in  mountainous  parts  of  the  Atlantic  states,  but  con- 
fined chiefly  to  high  elevations,  especially  southward.  Usually 
abundant  wherever  it  occurs. 

The  species  often  crosses  with  R.  nigrobaccus,  forming  vari- 
ous gradations,  where  the  two  meet  on  the  mountain  sides. 

26.  R.   CUNEIFOLIUS,  Pursh.     Sand   Blackberry. 

Shrubby,  1-3  feet  (3-9  decimeters)  high,  upright,  armed  with 
numerous  stout,  recurved  prickles;  branchlets  and  lower  side 
of  the  leaves  whitish  woolly,  partially  disappearing  with  age ; 
leaflets  3  on  the  bearing  canes,  5  on  the  young  ones,  obovate- 
cuneate,  acute  or  obtuse,  thickish,  entire  at  base,  serrate  toward 
the  apex,  often  coarsely  so  on  fruiting  canes  ;  inflorescence 
cymose,  peduncles  few-flowered  ;  sepals  oblong,  mucronate, 
woolly  within  and  without;  petals  large,  narrowly  obovate;  fruit 
roundish,  of  excellent  quality  (Fig.  62). 


328 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Distribution.— Sandy  woods  from  southern  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania, south  to  Florida,  and  west  to  Louisiana  and  Missouri. 
This  is  represented  in  cultivation  by  the  "Topsy,"  or  "Child's 

Tree  Blackberry." 

The  Kew  Index  also  rec- 
ognizes a  European  species 
under  the  name  E.  cuneifolius 
Merc.,  but  it  was  published 
since  R.  cuneifolius,  Pursh., 
therefore  cannot  stand.  In 
fact,  the  European  name  has 
already  been  replaced  by  R. 
sphenoides,  Focke. 

27.  E.  VILLOSUS,  Ait. — Low 
Blackberry.  Dewberry. 
R.  Canadensis,  authors, 
not  L. 

Main  stems  shrubby,  long, 
trailing,  rather  sparsely  and 
lightly  prickly;    leaflets  3, 
on  both  fruiting  and  young 
canes  (rarely  pedately  5-7) ; 
oval     or     ovate -lanceolate, 
acuminate,  or  obtuse  at  base 
of      fruiting     shoots,     thin, 
slightly    roughened,    sharply 
and   usually  singly  cut -ser- 
rate, petioles  and  veins  be- 
neath    often     prickly;      in- 
florescence cymose,  scarcely 
extending  beyond  the  leaves, 
few-flowered  ;         peduncles 
slightly   pubescent   but    not 
glandular;    sepals  tomentose 
within,  often  3-lobed  at  tip, 
the  central  lobe  being  long, 
expanded   and   leaflike. 
Distribution. — Newfoundland  to  Virginia,   and   west  to  eastern 
Kansas  and   central    Minnesota. 

This  species,  with  its  varieties,  forms  the  foundation  type 
to  which  the  northern  dewberries  belong. 


Fig.  62.    Rubus  cuneifolius (XI). 


NORTHERN  DEWBERRY  329 

Var.  RORIBACCUS,  Bailey. 

"Plants  larger  and  stronger;  leaflets  broad  below,  usually  tri- 
angular-ovate, doubly  serrate  with  small  teeth,  and  more  or 
less  notched  or  jagged;  peduncles  longer,  straighter,  stouter, 
and  more  erect,  habitually  more  numerous  and  more  conspic- 
uously overtopping  the  leaves ;  flowers  very  large,  sometimes  two 
inches  (5  cm.)  across;  sepals  uniformly  larger,  some  of  them 
much  prolonged  and  leaf-like  and  conspicuously  lobed  (some- 
times becoming  an  inch  long  and  wide) ;  fruit  much  larger  and 
longer  as  a  rule." — Original  description. 

This  variety  is  represented  in  cultivation  by  the  Lucretia.  It 
was  found  in  West  Virginia,  though  evidently  not  common  there. 

Var.  MICHIGANENSIS,  Card. 

Stems  woody,  trailing  in  sand  and  more  or  less  subterranean, 
sparingly  armed  with  comparatively  weak,  reflexed  or  recurved 
prickles,  which  become  stronger  on  the  petioles  of  the  present 
year's  growth;  upright  shoots  or  peduncles  nearly  herbaceous, 
more  pubescent,  with  but  few  slender  prickles  and  with  a  greater 
diameter  than  in  the  species;  stipules  long,  prominent,  often  1 
inch  (25  mm.)  long  on  young  wood,  with  a  distinct  midrib;  leaflets 
of  flowering  shoots  3,  mostly  ascending,  giving  the  shoots  a  leafy 
appearance ;  leaflets  of  new  wood  pedately  5-7,  larger  than  in  the 
species,  more  deeply  and  irregularly  incised,  somewhat  pubescent 
above  and  beneath;  pedicels  numerous,  pubescent,  but  not  glan- 
dular, upper  one  short,  scarcely  exceeding  the  leaves;  flowers 
small,  sepals  densely  tomentose  within,  reflexed,  with  a  slightly 
expanded  acumination;  petals  small,  obovate,  about  as  long  as  the 
sepals;  fruit  large  and  good. 

Collected  by  L.  H.  Bailey,  near  South  Haven,  Michigan. 

This  resembles  var.  roribaccus,  but  appears  to  be  more  strictly 
trailing,  less  woody,  more  pubescent,  leaflets  more  incised  and 
not  so  broad  at  base,  pedicels  not  so  long  and  straight,  prickles 
fewer  and  more  slender,  stipules  longer  and  flowers  much  smaller. 

28.  R.  INVISUS,  Bailey. — R.  Canadensis  var.  invisus,  Bailey. 

Stems  stout  and  stiff,  often  partially  ascending,  sparingly 
armed  with  reflexed  straight  prickles;  leaflets  much  larger  than 
in  the  species,  broad  and  thin,  glabrate  above  and  beneath,  the 
teeth  usually  very  large,  often  rounded  and  terminating  in  a 
minute  point;  peduncles  or  flower  stems  long  and  straight, 
glandular  in  the  wild  type ;  young  flower  buds  commonly  bear- 
ing a  prominent  tip  formed  by  the  connivent  ends  ot  the  sepals, 
which  often  become  foliaceous  later;  flowers  generally  larger 
than  in  the  species  and  overtopping  the  leaves;  fruit  globular- 
oblong,  of  good  size. 


330  BUSH-FRUITS 

Found  wild  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;    probably  widely  distributed. 
Represented  in  cultivation  by  Bartel,  Gen.  Grant  and  Neverfail. 

29.  E.  ENSLENII,    Tratt.—  E.    Baileyanus,    Britton.       R.    villosus 

var.  humifusus,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

"Procumbent  or  ascending,  pubescent  or  nearly  glabrous,  the 
stem  slender,  sparingly  prickly,  the  upper  leaves  almost  invaria- 
bly unifoliolate,  and  the  racemes  but  1-few-flowered.  The  leaf- 
lets are  broadly  ovate  or  oval,  acute  or  more  commonly  obtuse, 
thin,  the  terminal  ones  usually  cordate,  or  all  of  them  rounded 
or  obtuse  at  the  base;  fruit  small.  The  plant  appears  to  be 
always  a  dry  wood  species." 

30.  E.  TRIVIALIS,  Michx.     Low  Bush  Blackberry,  Southern  Dew- 

berry. 

Stems  shrubby,  procumbent,  terete,  beset  with  strongly  re- 
curved or  reflexed  prickles,  glaucous  or  hirsute  with  glandular 
tipped  hairs  and  bristles;  leaves  evergreen,  coriaceous,  glabrate, 
mostly  3-foliolate  on  bearing  canes,  3-5-foliolate  on  young  canes; 
leaflets  ovate-oblong  or  lanceolate,  sharply  serrate;  veins,  peti- 
oles and  peduncles  bearing  numerous  stout,  recurved  or  reflexed 
prickles;  inflorescence  cymose,  1-4-flowered;  sepals  ovate,  acumi- 
nate or  mucronate,  slightly  pubescent,  but  not  prickly;  petals 
obovate,  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals;  fruit  oblong,  black,  good. 
(Fig.  63.) 

Original  distribution. — Sandy  soil,  Virginia  to  Florida,  and 
west  to  Texas  and  Missouri. 

This  is  the  common  dewberry  of  the  southern  states.  It  is 
represented  in  cultivation  by  the  Manatee  and  Wilson's  White. 

31.  E.   VITIFOLIUS,    Cham  &   Schlecht.     Pacific   Coast   Dewberry 

or  Blackberry.  R.  ursinus,  Cham  &  Schlecht.  R.  macro- 
petalus,  Dougl. 

Hermaphrodite  plant. — Stems  becoming  woody,  weak  or  trail- 
ing, 5-20  feet  (1.5-6  meters)  long,  terete,  glaucous;  fruiting 
branches  numerous,  armed  with  straight,  rather  slender  prickles, 
mostly  pubescent;  leaves  3-foliolate,  rarely  5-foliolate  on  young 
canes,  often  simple  and  3-lobed  on  flowering  branchlets;  leaflets 
ovate  to  oblong,  coarsely  toothed,  smooth  or  somewhat  tomen- 
tose;  veins,  petioles,  peduncles,  and  often  the  calyx,  aculeate, 
with  slender  prickles;  stipules  oblanceolate  to  linear,  sometimes 
long  and  toothed;  sepals  ovate  or  ovate -lanceolate,  acuminate, 
sometimes  foliaceously  tipped,  then  exceeding  the  petals ;  fruit 
oblong,  black,  sweet  (Fig.  64) . 

Pistillate  plant. — Leaves  all  3-foliolate,  narrower,  more 
sharply  serrate,  thinner  and  less  pubescent,  flowers  smaller. 


Fig.  63.     Rubus  trivialis  (X%). 


332 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Fig.  64.    Rubu*  t>WoMw*.-Skagit  Chief  dewberry  (X%). 

Original  distribution. — The  coast  ranges  of  California,  Oregon 
and  Washington,  the  valley  of  the  Willamette,  and  also  in  Idaho. 

This  is  an  exceedingly  variable  species.  Different  specimens 
of  it  were  originally  described  on  adjoining  pages  by  the  same 
authors  as  two  species  under  the  names  R.  vitifolius  and  R. 
ursinus.  Later  the  pistillate  form  was  described  by  Douglas  as 
E.  macropetalus.  Some  forms  are  hermaphrodite,  others  stami- 


PACIFIC    COAST   DEWBERRY 


333 


nate,  with  abortive  pistils,  and  still  others  pistillate,  with  only 
rudimentary  stamens.  Some  forms  are  wholly  trailing,  while 
others  have  strong  and  nearly  upright  stems.  The  staminate 


Fig.  65.    Rubus  hispidus  (X%). 


forms  are  said  to  be  the  stouter.  The  Aughinbaugh  and  others 
belong  here.  Professor  Piper  writes  that  it  is  "abundant  in  west- 
ern Washington,  especially  in  old 'burns,'  and  fine  flavored  berries 


334  BUSH-FRUITS 

are  gathered  each  year  in  great  quantities.     It  is  locally  called 
blackberry,  although  it  is  really  a  dewberry." 

32.  E.  HISPIDUS,  L. — Running  Swamp  Blackberry. 

Stems  slender,  scarcely  woody,  long  and  trailing,  bearing 
numerous  small  reflexed  prickles;  stipules  linear,  conspicuous; 
leaflets  3,  rarely  pedately  5,  smooth,  thickish,  mostly  persistent 
during  winter,  obovate,  obtuse,  coarsely  serrate,  entire  toward  the 
base;  flowering  shoots  mostly  glabrous,  often  bristly,  and  even 
glandular  above  when  young,  several  flowered;  flowers  small, 
sepals  ovate,  mucronate,  half  the  length  of  the  obovate,  white 
petals;  fruit  of  few  grains,  dark  red  or  purplish  (Fig.  65). 

Distribution. — In  low  woods  or  swampy  ground  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  eastern  Kansas  and  Minnesota. 

A  pretty  species,  of  interest  to  botanists  only. 

33.  E.  SETOSUS,  Bigelow.     E.  hispidus  var.  setosus,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

B.  hispidus  var.  suberectus,  Peck. 

Stem  erect  or  recurved,  somewhat  woody,  densely  beset  with 
stiff  bristles  and  long  recurved  prickles,  which  extend  to  the 
petioles  and  midrib  of  leaflets  in  young  shoots,  upper  portions  of 
plant  glandular  even  on  young  shoots.  Leaflets  of  bearing  wood 
3,  oblong -obovate,  obtuse  or  often  acute  and  long-pointed  at  base, 
serrate  towards  the  tips,  sometimes  nearly  entire  at  base ;  leaflets 
of  new  shoots  mostly  5,  sharply  serrate,  acute  or  acuminate,  veins 
prominent;  branchlets  and  pedicels  bristly  and  glandular,  several 
flowered ;  flowers  small,  sepals  ovate,  mucronate,  half  the  length 
of  the  oblanceolate  white  petals;  fruit  black,  rather  larger  than 
in  B.  hispidus. 

Distribution. — 'Swampy  ground,  and  even  in  dry  pastures  in 
New  York  and  New  England. 

34.  E.  LACINIATUS,  Willd.— Cut-leaved,  or  Parsley- leaved   Black- 

berry. 

Stems  procumbent,  terete,  glaucous,  armed  with  strong  re- 
curved prickles,  sometimes  perennial  at  base ;  leaves  pedately  and 
pinnately  foliolate,  much  parted  and  divided,  sparingly  villous, 
especially  at  the  margins,  persistent  and  evergreen  when  pro- 
tected; petioles  pubescent  but  not  glandular;  inflorescence  cy- 
mose ;  pedicels  bearing  very  short  stalked  glands,  calyx  somewhat 
pubescent  and  aculeate  with  slender  prickles;  sepals  ovate -lan- 
ceolate, with  a  long  foliaceous  tip,  exceeding  the  white  obovate 
petals  ;  fruit  black,  large,  of  good  quality. 

This  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  form  of  the  European  black- 
berry, but  its  origin  is  in  doubt.  It  was  found  in  the  Botanic 


WHITE  AND  PINK  BRAMBLES  335 

Garden  at  Berlin  and  described  and  figured  by  Willdenow,  in  Wat- 
son's Dendrologia  Britannica,  1825.  It  was  imported  to  the 
United  States  from  France  by  Charles  More,  of  Yorkville,  N.  Y. 

35.  E.  ULMIFOLIUS  var.  BELLIDIFLORUS  hort.  E.  lellidiflorus  hort. 
E.  fruticosus  flore  plena  hort. 

Stem  recurved -prostrate  or  climbing,  strong,  angular  and  fur- 
rowed, finely  pubescent  above,  but  not  glandular;  prickles  large, 
strongly  reflexed,  from  a  large,  dilated,  compressed  base;  leaves 
3-5-foliolate,  partially  persistent;  leaflets  broadly  oval  or  obovate, 
acute  or  cuspidate,  coriaceous,  slightly  rugose  above,  with  very 
fine  close  white  felt  beneath;  petioles  prickly ;  panicles  upright, 
terminal,  felted,  with  prominent  angles  and  large-based  strongly 
recurved  prickles,  which  are  more  numerous  on  the  pedicels, 
lower  branches  of  the  panicle  axillary,  the  upper  subtended  by 
linear- lanceolate  bracts,  which  are  more  or  less  deeply  3-cleft  at 
the  apex ;  flowers  double,  red  or  white ;  sepals  broadly  ovate,  cus- 
pidate, finely  white-felted,  reflexed  in  flower;  outer  petals  par- 
taking somewhat  of  the  felty  character  of  the  calyx;  stamens  and 
styles  similar  to  the  petals  in  color. 

Cultivated  both  in  Europe  and  America,  the  parent  form  a 
native  of  southern  and  western  Europe  and  northwestern  Africa. 

This  plant  was  found  plentiful  and  well  established  at  Freder- 
ick, Maryland,  by  A.  Commons,  in  1876.  It  is  there  known 
as  "Blackberry  Rose,"  owing  to  its  comparatively  double  and 
showy  flowers.  The  white -flowered  form  was  received  at  the 
horticultural  department  of  Cornell  University,  from  Berlin, 
under  the  name  E.  spectabilis,  although  in  no  way  resembling 
the  true  E.  spectabilis  of  the  United  States. 

These  appear  to  be  the  forms  which  have  long  been  known  as 
Double  White  and  Double  Pink  Brambles.  Downing  describes 
them*  as  follows:  "They  are  beautiful  climbing  shrubs  of  re- 
markably luxuriant  growth,  which  may  be  trained  for  a  great 
length  in  a  season,  and  are  admirably  adapted  for  covering  walls 
and  unsightly  buildings.  The  flowers  are  like  small  double  roses, 
and  are  produced  in  numerous  clusters  in  June." 

The  foregoing    list   includes    the    important   species 
which  have  found  a  home  in  the  United  States,   but 


*Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  446. 


336  BUSH-FRUITS 

still  others  have  been  introduced,  chiefly  from  Japan. 
In  the  American  Horticultural  Annual  for  1871, 
p.  93,  A.  S.  Fuller  mentions  Rubus  Armeniacus  and 
R.  Kwfmeisterianus,  though  the  latter  may  have  been  a 
misprint  for  Hoffmeisterianus.  The  plant  referred  to 
was  apparently  the  one  better  known  as  Grape-vine 
Raspberry.  The  same  author  mentions*  R.  Japonicus 
as  having  been  sent  out  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.  These  long  ago  passed  out  of  cultivation. 

Among  the  newer  ones  may  be  mentioned  R.  trifidus, 
Thunb.,  known  as  the  "Fire  Raspberry."  This  Japa- 
nese species  is  described  by  Professor  Georgeson,t  as 
follows:  "The  canes  are  very  stout,  seven  to  ten  feet 
high,  upright,  cylindrical,  smooth,  no  prickles;  leaves 
large,  palmately  veined,  mostly  seven-cleft,  serrate, 
dark  green  above  and  but  slightly  lighter  below; 
berry  of  good  size,  scarlet;  drupes  pointed.  It  ripens 
gradually  through  July." 

The  Kew  Index  mentions  R.  decumbens,  Thunb., 
R.  longipetalus ,  Dougl.,  and  R.  tetraphyllus,  Willd.,  as 
recognized  North  American  species.  Of  these,  R.  longi- 
petalus is  given  as  a  name  only,  while  R.  tetraphyllns 
is  apparently  a  misprint,  for  at  the  place  referred  to 
the  name  is  R.  heterophyllus .  R.  decumbens  I  have 
not  been  able  to  trace.  R.  nanus,  mentioned  in 
Heller's  Catalogue  of  North  American  Plants,  was 
collected  on  the  Island  of  Ascension,  and  is  not  an 
American  species. 

*Small  Fruit  Culturist,  116.  tAmer.  Garden,  1891,  p.  204. 


PAKT  III 

THE   GROSELLES* 


CHAPTEE   XII 

9 

CURRANTS 

The  currant,  though  less  extensively  cultivated  than 
some  of  the  other  small  fruits,  fills  an  important 
place  in  the  pomology  of  our  country.  Its  sprightly 
and  healthful  qualities  render  it  desirable  to  the  con- 
sumer, and  its  staple  character  makes  it  a  compara- 
tively safe  crop  for  the  producer.  As  before  inti- 
mated, it  is  almost  wholly  a  northern  fruit,  having 
no  commercial  importance  in  the  southern  states. 
Neither  currants  nor  gooseberries  receive  notice  in 
"Florida  Fruits,"  by  Helen  Harcourt,  though  other 
small  fruits  do.  It  does  not  prosper  in  hot  and  dry 
climates.  Even  in  Nebraska  it  does  not  succeed  well. 
The  plants  thrive  and  look  healthy,  but  are  com- 
paratively unproductive,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 


*I  find  no  English  word  in  use  which  includes  both  currants  and  gooseberries. 
Since  there  is  an  evident  need  for  such  a  term,  I  have  adopted  the  word  groselle. 
This  is  a  modification  of  the  old  French  word  groiselle,  or  groisselle,  which  was 
used  for  both  these  fruits  before  a  separate  term  was  employed  to  designate  the 
currant.  The  present  French  word  groseille,  meaning  a  gooseberry,  also  formerly 
included  both. 

V  (337) 


338  BUSH-FRUITS 

observe  them.  The  fruit  is  but  little  seen  in  market, 
which  is  probably  the  result  of  unfavorable  experience. 

Figures  in  regard  to  the  extent  and  value  of  the 
crop  are  not  readily  available,  but  something  of  its 
importance  can  be  estimated  from  the  number  of 
acres  devoted  to  the  production  of  plants  by  nursery- 
men, as  shown  by  the  census  report  of  1890.  The 
returns  at  that  time  showed  2,020  acres  devoted  to 
currants  in  the  nurseries.  Of  this  number  1,316  acres 
were  in  one-year-old  plants  and  704  acres  in  two- 
year -old  plants.  Ohio  leads  in  the  production,  with 
451  acres,  followed  by  New  York  with  405  acres  and 
Illinois  with  383  acres.  But  23  acres  are  reported 
from  the  south  Atlantic  division,  which  includes  New 
Jersey,  7  from  the  south  central,  and  11  from  the 
western  division.  The  total  acreage  is  less  than  half 
that  of  either  strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries  or 
grape  vines.  About  twenty -five  thousand  plants  are 
grown  on  each  acre.  The  estimated  cost  of  producing 
one-year-old  plants  is  about  $1  per  hundred.  The 
average  selling  price  reported  in  the  north  Atlantic 
division  is  about  $1.85,  and  in  the  north  central 
division  $2.08  per  hundred.  The  estimated  cost  of 
two -year -old  plants  is  about  $1.50  per  hundred,  and 
the  average  wholesale  selling  price  $3  in  the  north 
Atlantic  and  $2.60  in  the  north  central  division. 

These  figures  show  plainly  the  region  of  adaptation 
of  the  currant,  though  the  small  acreage  in  the  ex- 
treme western  portion  may  be  due  to  a  want  of  sat- 
isfactory markets  rather  than  to  a  .lack  of  .adaptation 
in  climate. 


SOIL    FOR    THE    CURRANT  339 

There  seems  to  have  been  a  boom  in  currant  cul- 
ture about  1856,  and  American  nurserymen  were  not 
able  to  keep  pace  with  the  demand,*  but  in  recent 
years  there  has  been  little  fluctuation,  the  demand 
having  been  steady  with  the  markets  seldom  glutted. 


SOIL    AND   LOCATION 

Currants  will  thrive  and  bear  some  fruit  on  almost 
any  soil,  but,  as  their  natural  habitat  indicates,  in 
order  to  produce  really  satisfactory  and  profitable 
crops  they  need  a  cool  and  moist  soil.  Experience 
has  fully  demonstrated  this  fact.  The  best  results 
are,  therefore,  to  be  expected  from  strong  clay  loams. 
Even  a  stiff  clay,  under  good  culture,  will  be  found 
satisfactory.  Strong,  moist,  sandy  loams,  if  not  too 
light,  are  also  good.  In  the  selection  of  a  site,  the 
natural  habitat  of  the  plant  will  point  to  a  cool 
northern  exposure.  A  proper  site  may  in  part  offset 
the  disadvantage  of  an  unfavorable  soil.  Low,  moist 
ground,  with  some  reduction  in  the  intensity  of  the 
sun's  rays,  will  be  found  advantageous.  For  this  rea- 
son the  currant  often  thrives  well  in  orchards.  This 
is  most  satisfactory  in  those  regions  approaching  the 
limit  of  its  adaptability  to  culture.  For  family  use, 
it  may  be  planted  on  the  north  side  of  buildings  or 
fences.  Mulching  tends  to  accomplish  the  same  end, 
since  it  keeps  the  soil  shaded  and  cool. 

Regions  somewhat  elevated  are  generally  more  sat- 

*  Horticulturist,  1856:210. 


340  BUSH-FRUITS 

isfactory  than  lower  altitudes,  especially  toward  the 
southern  limits  of  its  range.  It  is  stated*  that  in 
Pennsylvania  better  fruit  is  produced  at  an  elevation 
of  1,000  feet  than  on  plateaus  near  the  sea,  the 
leaves  falling  earlier  on  the  lower  lands,  and  the  fruit 
being  smaller  in  consequence  the  succeeding  year. 


FERTILIZERS 

The  currant  is  a  rank  feeder,  and  needs  a  rich 
soil,  with  liberal  fertilizing.  Yet  the  roots  are  small 
and  fibrous,  and  do  not  extend  far  for  their  food.  It 
must  be  supplied  in  liberal  quantities  and  close  at 
hand.  While  no  fruit  will  live  and  apparently  thrive 
under  greater  neglect  than  will  the  currant,  it  is 
equally  true  that  no  fruit  will  more  quickly  or  fully 
respond  to  liberal  treatment.  Too  often  it  is  relegated 
to  the  fence  corners,  without  care  or  culture,  there  to 
battle  with  sod  and  currant  worms  from  year  to  year. 
Little  wonder  that  the  returns  are  sour  and  small! 
Liberal  applications  of  stable  manure,  preferably  in  the 
fall,  supplemented  with  the  addition  of  wood  ashes  or 
potash  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the 
spring,  are  always  in  order.  Currants  containt  0.13 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  0.27  per  cent  of 
potash,  while  stable  manure  contains  only  about  one- 
third  more  potash  than  phosphoric  acid,  which  shows 
the  need  of  additional  potash.  There  is  little  danger 


*Gardeners's  Monthly,  1887:208. 
tExp.  Sta.  Handbook,  p.  402. 


PROPAGATION  341 

of  too  rank  growth  or  of  diminished  fruitfulness 
from  an  excess  of  stable  manure.  Observations  at 
the  Massachusetts  State  Experiment  Station*  show 
that  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  fruit  were  in- 
creased in  every  case  by  the.  application  of  potash 
fertilizers.  A  comparison  of  sulphate  and  muriate 
of  potash  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion showed  no  practical  difference  in  favor  of  either. t 
To  sum  up,  fertilizing  for  the  currant  does  not  differ 
from  that  required  for  other  fruits,  except  that  it 
needs  to  be  more  liberal  than  in  most  other  cases, 
if  satisfactory  returns  are  to  be  obtained. 


PROPAGATION 

Currants  are  readily  propagated  from  hard -wood 
cuttings  made  from  well -ripened  shoots  of  one  sea- 
son's growth.  The  cuttings  may  be  taken  and  planted 
either  in  fall  or  in  spring,  but  the  common  custom 
among  nurserymen  is  to  take  them  in  early  autumn, 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  mature.  The  leaves  commonly 
begin  falling  as  early  as  August,  but  they  are  fre- 
quently stripped  a  week  or  so  before  the  cuttings 
are  taken,  which  is  usually  done  the  last  of  August 
or  first  of  September.  They  may  then  be  planted  at 
once,  or  tied  in  bundles  and  buried  upside  down  with 
two  inches  of  soil  over  the  butts.  In  this  position 
they  may  callus,  and  even  form  roots,  before  winter. 

*Mass.  Agr.  Kept.  1884:444.     Exp.  Station  Bull.  7. 
t  Annual  Kept.  1890:283. 


342  BUSH-FRUITS 

They  may  be  taken  up  and  planted  later,  removed  to 
a  cellar  and  buried  in  sand  during  the  winter,  or  be 
given  an  additional  covering  and  be  left  where  they 
are  until  spring.  If  planting  is  deferred  until  spring, 
it  must  be  done  very  early,  as  they  begin  growth  at 
a  low  temperature,  and  must  receive  attention  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment.  The  commoner  practice  is 
to  plant  in  nursery  rows  soon  after  the  cuttings  are 
taken.  They  are  said  to  root  more  quickly  if  packed 
in  damp  moss  a  week  or  two  before  planting.  The 
cuttings  are  ordinarily  made  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long,  though  the  older  writings  recommended  them  to 
be  a  foot  long.  The  base  should  be  formed  with  a 
alean,  square  cut  just  beneath  a  bud.  The  top  is 
commonly  a  slanting  cut  some  distance  above  the 
uppermost  bud.  Planting  may  be  done  by  means  of 
a  spade,  but  is  more  conveniently  and  rapidly  done 
by  plowing  furrows  and  setting  the  cuttings  against 
the  land -side  of  the  furrow.  One  or  two  buds  only 
are  left  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,'  and  the 
earth  should  be  firmly  packed  about  the  base  of  the 
cuttings.  If  set  early  in  September,  many  of  the 
plants  will  form  roots  and  establish  themselves  before 
winter,  being  in  condition  to  begin  growth  immediately 
in  spring.  As  freezing  weather  approaches,  a  shovel 
plow  is  sometimes  run  through  the  rows,  in  order 
to  throw  the  earth  toward  but  not  over  the  cuttings. 
This  leaves  a  depression  along  the  rows,  and  the 
plants  are  then  easily  protected  by  covering  with 
straw  or  coarse  manure.  Mulching  in  some  form  is 
essential  during  the  winter,  if  currant  cuttings  are 


CUTTINGS  343 

planted  in  the  fall.  Rich  land  should  be  selected, 
and  heavy  dressings  of  well -rotted  manure  are  useful. 

G.  A.  Marshall,  of  Arlington,  Nebr.,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing method  of  propagating  the  currant.  As  soon 
as  the  leaves  fall,  which  is  about  September  first,  the 
cuttings  are  made,  nine  inches  long,  much  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  operation  depending  upon  long  cuttings 
in  the  dry  climate  and  light  soil  of  Nebraska.  They 
are  then  buried  with  the  butts  up  and  about  three 
inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  About  the 
first  of  November  they  are  taken  up  and  planted  in 
nursery  rows,  and  a  ridge  of  earth  thrown  over  them 
so  that  they  are  covered  about  two  inches  deep. 
In  the  spring  this  covering  is  raked  away,  so  that 
the  tips  are  left  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  method  is  interesting,  because  it  shows  some- 
thing of  the  modifications  demanded  by  a  dry  climate. 

Single -eye  cuttings  under  glass,  or  green -wood  cut- 
tings may  be  used,  but  are  less  satisfactory  than  hard- 
wood cuttings,  and  are  only  used  under  special  cir- 
cumstances. Plants  may  also  be  grown  from  layers, 
and  even  from  tip  layers,  like  the  black  raspberries, 
but  these  methods  have  little  to  recommend  them. 
It  was  formerly  advised  to  cut  out  all  the  lower  buds 
in  planting  cuttings,  in  order  to  insure,  a  tree  form 
of  growth,  but  this  is  seldom  practiced  now.  Plants 
so  grown  are  of  interest  as  curiosities  or  novelties, 
but  are  not  satisfactory  in  field  culture. 

New  varieties  are  grown  from  seeds,  which  should 
be  taken  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ripe.  They  may  be 
washed  from  the  pulp  and  dried  like  vegetable  seeds, 


344  BUSH-FRUITS 

but  it  is  better  to  sow  or  mix  them  with  sand  at  once, 
and  not  allow  them  to  dry.  If  mixed  with  sand,  they 
should  be  buried  or  kept  in  a  cool,  shady  place,  and  sown 
very  early  in  spring.  They  may  be  sown,  not  over  half 
an  inch  deep,  in  flats  or  in  the  open  ground,  in  fine,  rich 
and  mellow  soil.  Partial  shade  and  a  light  mulch  of 
fine  manure  will  aid  in  retaining  moisture  and  prevent 
the  ground  from  baking.  The  seeds  germinate  at  a 
low  temperature,  and  are  likely  to  start  too  early  unless 
kept  in  a  shaded  place.  If  sown  at  once  in  flats,  the 
flats  can  be  kept  in  a  cool,  shaded  place  during  the 
winter,  and  given  partial  exposure  in  spring.  Plung- 
ing them  in  the  soil  will  aid  in  preserving  uniform 
conditions  of  moisture,  and  covering  with  a  wire 
screen  will  insure  safety  from  destruction  by  mice  or 
other  animals.  If  a  greenhouse  is  available  they  may 
be  brought  inside  toward  spring,  where  the  seeds  will 
germinate  quickly.  The  young  plants  may  be  potted 
off  when  two  or  three  inches  high,  and  planted  out 
when  well  established. 

PLANTING 

The  first  essential  in  planting  fruit  is  a  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil.  For  currants,  the  land 
should  receive  a  heavy  dressing  of  well -rotted  stable 
manure,  be  plowed  deep,  and,  if  the  underlying  layers 
are  hard  and  impervious  to  roots  and  moisture,  sub- 
soiled.  One  may  choose  almost  any  distance  apart 
to  set  the  plants,  and  find  it  recommended  some- 
where in  horticultural  literature.  The  distances  ad- 


PLANTING   THE    CURRANT  345 

vocated  vary  from  three -by -four  feet  to  five -by -eight 
feet,  with  every  possible  intermediate  combination.  It 
will  generally  be  found  satisfactory  to  place  the  rows 
six  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  four  feet  apart  in 
the  rows.  If  the  design  is  to  cultivate  both  ways, 
five  feet  apart  each  way  may  be  better.  Cross -cultiva- 
tion is  commonly  only  needed  at  intervals,  and  the 
wider  row  should  be  in  the  direction  most  conven- 
ient for  cultivating. 

The  land  should  be  in  fine,  mellow  tilth  as  deep 
as  plowed.  It  should  then  be  marked  both  ways, 
with  furrows  in  one  direction.  It  will  be  all  the  bet- 
ter if  these  furrows  are  made  deeper  than  necessary 
to  receive  the  plants,  in  order  to  insure  their  being 
set  in  a  well -fined  bed.  The  setting  is  easily  done 
by  placing  the  plants  against  the  land- side  of  the 
furrow  and  drawing  the  earth  about  them,  packing  it 
firmly  about  the  roots  with  the  feet.  No  one  point 
is  more  essential  than  this  thorough  firming  of  the  soil 
about  the  roots.  A  layer  of  loose,  fine  soil  should 
be  left  at  the  surface,  to  act  as  a  mulch  and  prevent 
the  packed  soil  beneath  from  drying  out.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  furrow  may  be  left  to  be  filled  in 
as  cultivation  progresses  later  on.  One-year-old 
plants,  if  vigorous  and  well  grown,  are  quite  as  sat- 
isfactory and  cost  less  money.  They  are  easily  set, 
meet  with  little  check  in  transplanting,  and  make  a 
better  growth  than  if  left  in  the  crowded  nursery 
row  during  the  same  time. 

The  earliness  of  the  currant  in  starting  into  growth 
in  spring  is  a  point  in  favor  of  fall  planting.  This 


346  BUSH-FRUITS 

depends  so  much  upon  climate,  however,  that  it  is 
unsafe  to  lay  down  a  general  rule.  Throughout  the 
western  plains,  where  the  winters  are  dry  and  open, 
fall  planting  is  always  uncertain,  though  with  care- 
ful protection  it  may  succeed.  Whatever  the  location, 
if  the  planting  is  done  early  enough  in  spring  there 
is  nothing  to  fear.  If  neglected  until  the  plants  have 
started  into  growth,  the  check  must  always  seri- 
ously affect  the  first  season's  results. 

SUBSEQUENT   TILLAGE 

Cultivation  of  the  currant  should  be  shallow.  The 
roots  run  near  the  surface,  and  are  likely  to  be  in- 
jured by  plowing,  or  even  by  the  ordinary  cultiva- 
tor. Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  with  a  light --har- 
row-tooth  cultivator  or  a  spring -tooth  cultivator  hav- 
ing the  teeth  set  well  back,  is  most  desirable.  It 
may  be  owing  to  this  habit  of  shallow  rooting,  that 
both  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry  succeed  especially 
well  with  mulching.  Any  refuse  material  like  straw, 
weeds,  wild  grass,  or  even  coal  ashes,  may  be  used. 
The  mulching  not  only  replaces  cultivation  in  keeping 
down  weeds  and  retaining  moisture,  but  helps  to  keep 
the  fruit  clean  as  well.  This  is  a  good  way  to  grow 
currants  for  family  use,  especially  if  they  occupy 
small  or  inaccessible  corners  of  the  yard  or  garden, 
where  cultivation  is  inconvenient  or  must  be  done  by 
hand.  In  the  well  arranged  fruit -garden,  where  the 
plants  occupy  definite  rows,  and  also  in  field  culture, 
cultivation  is  far  more  practicable  than  mulching. 


PRUNING   THE   CURRANT 


347 


PRUNING 

Pruning  the  currant  is  often  neglected,  yet  pro- 
ductiveness largely  depends  upon  it.  Plants  will  pro- 
duce some  fruit  no  mat- 
ter how  treated,  and 
hence  are  likely  to  be 
treated  very  indiffer- 
ently. The  fruit  is 
borne  both  on  old  and 
young  wood,  the  best 
and  most  of  it  appar- 
ently near  the  base  of 
the  one-year-old  shoots 
and  on  short  one  year- 
old  spurs  from  the  older 
wood.  Consequently, 
most  of  the  young  wood 
may  be  cut  away,  or  the 
old  wood  may  be  cut 
out,  leaving  young 
shoots,  and  fruit  will 
still  be  produced.  The 
younger  the  wood  the 
finer  the  fruit,  as  a 
rule,  but  the  plants  are 
likely  to  be  less  produc- 
tive unless  a  fair  supply 

of  wood  more  than  one  year  old  is  left.  Yet  this 
older  wood  soon  becomes  weak,  and  produces  small 
and  inferior  fruit. 


Fig.  66.    Tree-form  currant. 


348  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  older  plan  of  training  to  a  tree  form  (Fig.  66), 
by  removing  the  lower  buds  from  the  cuttings  when 
planted,  is  now  practically  discarded.  The  plants  are 
less  productive,  and  if  attacked  by  the  currant  borer, 
the  whole  plant  is  destroyed  instead  of  a  single  stalk, 
as  when  grown  in  the  bush  form.  If  the  tree  form  is 
desirable  for  novelty  or  ornament,  six  or  eight  shoots 
are  selected,  as  the  bush  develops,  to  form  permanent 
branches.  These  are  cut  back  to  four  to  six  inches 
every  year  till  the  bush  is  full  grown,  and  afterward 
to  only  two  or  three  buds.  All  lateral  shoots  are  cut 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  old  wood  each  year. 

For  practical  field  culture,  from  four  to  eight  main 
stems  are  allowed,  and  these  should  be  frequently 
renewed.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  wood  over  three  years 
old  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain.  Some  expert 
growers  of  long  experience  say  that  none  over  two 
years  old  should  be  left.  Superfluous  young  shoots 
should  also  be  cut  away,  but  the  buds  at  the  base  of 
these  may  well  be  left,  as  they  develop  into  fruit -bear- 
ing spurs.  A  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  regard 
to  cutting  back  the  young  growth.  The  longer  the  old 
wood  is  left  the  greater  will  be  the  demand  for  cut- 
ting back.  This  method  may  give  increased  produc- 
tiveness, but  finer  fruit  will  result  from  frequent  renew- 
ing. In  any  event,  the  more  vigorous  shoots  should  be 
shortened -in,  to  prevent  the  bush  from  becoming  strag- 
gling and  to  preserve  its  balance.  Since  the  greater 
part  of  the  fruit  is  borne  near  the  base  of  the  shoots, 
shortening  these  may  tend  toward  a  better  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  spurs,  especially  if  the  shoots  are 


THINNING  AND  TRAINING          349 

nipped  back  in  summer,  when  they  have  reached  suf- 
ficient height.  In  common  practice,  a  liberal  and  judi- 
cious thinning  out  of  old  wood  and  superfluous  young 
wood  in  early  spring  will  be  all  that  is  required. 

Experiments  in  thinning  the  fruit,  made  in  New 
Jersey,*  showed  that  when  the  outer  half  of  the  flower 
cluster  was  removed  with  a  pair  of  scissors  there  were 
15  per  cent  more  berries  to  the  cluster,  and  the  berries 
were  7  per  cent  heavier.  The  quality  also  seemed  to 
be  better. 

Various  fancy  methods  of  training  are  resorted  to 
by  those  with  a  taste  for  oddities.  Sometimes  they 
are  trained  in  "pillar"  form,  one  upright  shoot  being 
tied  to  a  stake  and  the  side  branches  kept  very  short. 
They  may  also  be  readily  trained  against  a  wall,  and 
it  is  said  that  specially  fine  fruit  may  be  obtained  on 
a  north  wall.  They  have  even  been  grafted,  from 
time  to  time,  in  order  to  secure  standard  or  tree 
forms,  Ribes  aureum  being  most  commonly  employed 
as  a  stock  for  this  purpose.  These  methods  were 
chiefly  in  vogue  early  in  the  horticultural  develop- 
ment of  our  own  country,  but  are  now  little  used. 


GATHERING  AND  MARKETING 

The  currant,  like  all  other  fruits,  should  be  picked 
only  when  dry.  Although  a  firm  fruit,  which  stands 
shipment  well  when  properly  treated,  it  will  readily 
spoil  if  gathered  and  packed  when  wet.  Much  care 

*Garden  and  Forest,  3:19. 


350  BUSH-FRUITS 

is  needed  to  prevent  pickers  from  crushing  the  berries 
or  tearing  them  from  the  stems.  It  is  so  much  easier 
to  grasp  a  cluster  and  give  it  a  pull  than  it  is  to  care- 
fully sever  the  stem,  that  only  the  strictest  vigilance 
will  insure  proper  care  in  the  work.  This  is  written 
with  a  very  distinct  remembrance  of  the  work  of  some 
Irish  girls,  who  thought  it  much  more  convenient  to 
strip  the  berries  from  the  clusters  and  throw  them 
in  loose  than  to  pick  the  stems  at  all,  especially  in 
the  middle  of  the  baskets,  where  less  likely  to  be 
detected.  All  such  berries  will  quickly  spoil,  the  juice 
which  exudes  from  them  will  soon  render  the  others 
wet  and  sticky,  and  a  general  collapse  of  the  whole 
package  is  likely  to  result.  Varieties  like  the  Fay, 
which  have  more  clear  space  of  stem  at  the  base  of 
the  clusters,  have  a  distinct  advantage  in  this  regard, 
for  they  may  be  more  readily  picked  without  crushing 
any  of  the  fruits.  For  shipping  purposes,  the  fruit 
must  be  picked  while  still  hard  and  firm,  in  order  to 
carry  well,  but  for  home  use  or  near  market  it  should 
not  be  picked  too  soon,  especially  for  dessert  use. 
If  left  on  the  bushes  until  thoroughly  ripe  and  soft, 
they  make  an  admirable  dessert  fruit.  For  this 
purpose  the  White  Grape  is  one  of  the  best, 
being  less  acid  than  most  varieties.  The  fruiting 
season  may  be  prolonged  until  autumn,  if  the  fruit 
is  protected  by  covering  the  plants  with  light  cheese- 
cloth or  netting. 

The  fruit  is  commonly  marketed  in  quart  baskets, 
put  up  in  bushel  crates  like  other  berries,  but  of  late 
years  the  grape  basket  has  been  gaining  in  favor  as 


USES   OF   THE   CURRANT  351 

a  package,  and  is  now  very  largely  used.  The  nine- 
pound  basket  is  the  size  preferred  by  most  markets. 
This  is  a  convenient  size  for  the  consumer,  especially 
if  purchased  for  jelly  or  preserving. 


USES 

The  paramount  use  of  the  currant  is  in  making 
jelly,  for  which  purpose  it  is  unsurpassed.  The  red 
varieties  are  preferred  owing  to  their  higher  color, 
but  it  is  said  that  if  white  currants  are  scalded  before 
pressing,  they  make  a  rich,  red  jelly,  not  as  dark  as 
that  from  red  varieties,  but  very  handsome.  The 
fruit,  either  green  or  ripe,  makes  excellent  pies  or 
sauce.  It  is  especially  satisfactory  when  used  in 
combination  with  fruits  which  lack  sprightliness  or 
acidity.  With  a  few  currants  added,  even  the  Rus- 
sian mulberry  becomes  a  most  appetizing  fruit, 
and  the  juneberry  seems  to  be  all  that  one  could 
wish.  The  currant  supplies  the  requisite  acidity,  and 
these  fruits  furnish  the  richness  of  flavor  which  the 
currant  lacks.  In  canning  it  preserves  its  qualities 
intact,  so  that  it  is  nearly  as  available  in  winter  as 
in  summer.  Currant  shrub  is  a  pleasant  summer 
drink,  made  from  the  ripe  fruit  crushed  and  com- 
pounded like  lemonade.  The  juice  is  said  to  be 
very  useful  in  soothing  fevers.  At  one  time  the 
fruit  was  reported*  as  having  a  steady  demand  in  St. 
Louis  for  use  as  a  flavoring  in  soda  water. 

"Illinois  Hort.  Soc.  1890:157. 


352  BUSH-FRUITS 


DURATION  OP  PLANTATIONS 

The  length  of  time  during  which  plantings  will  con- 
tinue productive  will  depend  much  upon  the  care  and 
treatment  which  they  receive.  Downing  advised*  re- 
newing them  every  six  or  eight  years,  as  finer  fruit, 
with  less  trouble,  can  be  had  from  young  bushes.  He 
was  then  recommending  the  tree  form  of  culture,  how- 
ever, and  these  fail  sooner  than  when  a  number  of 
stalks  are  grown  and  renewed  as  fast  as  they  become 
weak.  As  against  this  view,  it  does  not  occur  to  the 
ordinary  farmer  that  they  need  to  be  renewed  at  all. 
To  him  a  currant  bush,  once  planted,  should  take  care 
of  itself,  and  last  indefinitely,  or  at  least  as  long  as 
an  apple  tree.  That  is  just  what  the  plant  ordinarily 
does  under  the  conditions  to  which  the  farmer  too 
often  subjects  it.  It  looks  out  for  itself,  but  does 
not  devote  any  great  amount  of  energy  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  high  grade  of  fruit.  So,  too,  with 
good  care,  liberal  fertilizing  and  frequent  renewing, 
bushes  may  be  kept  in  a  profitable  condition  for 
many  years.  Practical  growers,  however,  seem  to 
find  it  advisable  to  replant  after  eight  or  ten  years 
of  service.  The  cost  of  replanting  is  slight,  and 
the  advantage  of  young  and  vigorous  plants  will 
more  than  repay  it.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  found 
desirable  to  rejuvenate  old  bushes  in  the  home  garden, 
cutting  them  off  close  to  the  ground  and  working 
manure  into  the  soil  will  infuse  new  life  into  them. 


*Pruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  488. 


HARDINESS  AND    YIELD  353 


HARDINESS 

The  question  of  ability  to  endure  cold  hardly  enters 
into  consideration  in  connection  with  the  currant.  It 
endures  the  most  severe  winters,  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern limits  of  the  United  States  at  least,  and  comes 
out  in  spring  with  every  bud  unharmed.  The  question 
of  hardiness  here  centers  not  on  ability  to  endure 
cold,  but  on  ability  to  endure  heat,  and  in  this  it 
fails,  as  already  shown  by  its  distribution  and  its 
more  or  less  complete  failure  in  warm  climates. 

YIELD 

Perhaps  no  fruit  is  grown  in  which  the  yield  varies 
more  than  with  the  currant.  This  is  largely  owing  to 
the  fact,  already  indicated,  that  it  will  grow  and  pro- 
duce something  under  almost  any  kind  of  treatment. 
It  is  doubtful  whether,  taking  the  currant  fields  of 
the  country  as  they  run,  the  yield  per  acre  would 
be  over  fifty  bushels.  Yet  there  are  growers  who 
report  as  high  as  250  bushels.  With  good  care 
they  ought  to  yield  from  100  to  150  bushels  per  acre. 
Yet  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  there  are 
many  drawbacks  to  the  production  of  all  kinds  of 
fruit,  and  while  this  may  seem  very  easy  to  obtain, 
when  compared  with  the  exceptional  yields  occasion- 
ally reported,  it  will  be  found  that  only  by  high  cul- 
ture and  the  most  careful  attention  to  details  will 
even  these  yields  be  reached.  In  garden  culture, 
from  two  to  four  pounds  per  bush  may  be  expected. 


354  BUSH-FRUITS 

As  instances  of  exceptional  yields,  five  and  one -half 
tons  from  one  and  one -fourth  acres,  or  220  bushels 
per  acre,  is  reported*  as  the  best  yield  on  the  Hud- 
son previous  to  1871.  W.  W.  Farnsworth  reported  a 
crop  in  1889 1  which  averaged  six  quarts  per  bush,  or 
320  bushels  per  acre.  Sixteen  tons  from  three  acres 
was  reported  by  J.  S.  Stickney,  of  Wisconsin,  the 
same  yearj.  Let  no  one  mistake  these  for  probable 
yields,  however,  in  forming  estimates  of  the  results 
which  are  likely  to  follow  prospective  planting. 


PROFITS 

Profits  vary  greatly,  not  only  with  methods  of  cul- 
ture, but  also  with  conditions  of  the  market.  There 
have  been  periods  at  which  they  have  proved  unprofit- 
able, and  again  they  have  yielded  large  returns,  but 
this  fluctuation  is  no  greater  than  with  other  fruit. 
The  larger 'markets  are  frequently  filled  and  the  price 
low,  but  Doctor  Hoskins  is  authority  for  the  state- 
ment§  that  the  New  England  market  is  never  over- 
stocked, and  that  they  are  more  profitable  than  straw- 
berries or  raspberries.  To  the  skillful  grower  who  is 
near  a  market  or  has  exceptionally  good  facilities  for 
shipping,  the  currant  will  prove  profitable,  while  to 
the  ordinary  farmer,  unaccustomed  to  their  care,  and 
remote  from  market,  they  will  prove  unprofitable. 


Horticulturist,  1871:368. 
fPopular  Gardening,  4:111. 
jElinois  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1880:21. 
gRural  New-Yorker,  1896:234. 


BLACK  CURRANTS  355 

At  six  cents  per  pound  or  eight  cents  per  quart,  they 
should  prove  a  satisfactory  crop.  Canning  factories 
use  them  in  large  quantities  at  about  four  cents 
per  pound,  and  they  weigh  about  forty  pounds  per 
bushel,  making  the  equivalent  of  $1.60  per  bushel. 
This,  with  a  convenient  location  and  good  culture,  to 
insure  a  yield  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  bushels 
per  acre,  will  yield  a  fair  return,  provided  pickers 
are  readily  obtainable  in  sufficient  numbers,  so  that 
enough  can  be  grown  to  make  it  an  object. 


BLACK  CURRANTS 

The  treatment  of  the  black  currant  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  the  red.  The  bushes  grow  a 
little  taller,  and  may  require  a  little  more  room.  This 
can  be  easily  given  under  ordinary  circumstances,  for 
in  most  localities  one  bush  will  supply  the  demand 
of  the  whole  community.  A  convenient  method  of 
pruning  the  black  currant  is  quoted  from  the  Garden 
by  the  Canadian  Horticulturist,  1896,  page  198.  It 
consists  in  cutting  out  the  bearing  branches  when  the 
fruit  is  ripe,  carrying  them  to  a  shady  place  and  there 
picking  the  fruit  at  ease.  The  annual  renewing  thus 
given  is  said  to  produce  well-ripened  wood  and  fine 
fruit,  since  fruit  borne  on  old  wood  is  much  inferior. 

Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  popularity  of  the  black 
currant  in  America,  we  might  do  well  to  cultivate  it 
more  than  we  do.  It  undoubtedly  possesses  more 
value  than  we  accord  to  it.  It  is  stated  by  Prof. 


356  B  USH-FR  UITS 

Budd*  that  if  the  fruit  is  scalded  for  a  few  minutes 
in  boiling  water,  then  put  into  fresh  water  for  cook- 
ing, the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  skin  will  be  wholly  re- 
moved, and  that  when  canned  it  is  much  like  cran- 
berry sauce  in  flavor  and  color.  The  fruit  is  credited 
with  some  medicinal  qualities,  especially  in  alleviat- 
ing inflammation  or  soreness  of  the  throat.  Jelly  from 
the  fruit,  mingled  with  water,  or  the  parts  of  the  plant 
steeped,  are  said  to  be  useful  in  bowel  and  summer 
complaints.  People  accustomed  to  its  use  certainly 
relish  it,  especially  for  jam  and  jelly.  Fuller  statest 
that  the  people  of  Siberia  use  the  leaves  for  making  a 
drink  the  same  as  we  use  tea.  London  sayst  that  the 
dried  leaves  so  much  resemble  green  tea  in  flavor 
that  a  very  small  portion  of  them  added  to  black  tea 
will  communicate  that  flavor  so  effectually  as  to  com- 
pletely deceive  the  taste.  From  London's  statements 
it  appears  that  the  fruit,  either  dried  or  in  the  form 
of  jam  or  jelly,  is  very  widely  used  throughout 
Europe  against  affections  of  the  throat. 

*Bull.  16,  la.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  364. 
tSmall  Fruit  Culturist,  p.  188. 
I  Arboretum  et  Fruticetum  Britannicum,  2:985. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

GOOSEBERRIES 

The  gooseberry  is  one  of  the  lesser  lights  in  the 
pomological  firmament  of  the  United  States.  It  is  ap- 
parently prized  and  appreciated  less  than  almost-  any 
other  fruit.  It  is  extremely  sour,  and  the  custom  of 
using  it  only  in  the  green  state  prevents  its  better 
qualities  from  becoming  known.  Many  people  do  not 
care  for  it,  and  the  demand  is  much  less  than  for  the 
berry  fruits,  while  the  supply  is  usually  more  than  cor- 
respondingly less.  In  spite  of  this  apparent  indiffer- 
ence, it  has  many  good  qualities  to  commend  it.  In 
the  green  state,  as  generally  sold,  it  bears  shipment 
exceedingly  well,  reaching  the  consumer,  when  prop- 
erly handled,  with  no  waste,  and  in  as  good  condition 
as  when  it  left  the  plants. 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  gooseberry 
is  cultivated  may  be  gained  from  the  census  report 
of  1890,  which  shows  1,009  acres  of  plants  to  have 
been  growing  in  the  nurseries  of  the  United  States. 
This  is  only  half  the  acreage  devoted  to  currants, 
while  the  average  number  of  plants  produced  from 
an  acre  is  given  as  14,000,  as  against  about  25,000 
currant  plants  per  acre.  This  indicates  that  the  plant- 
ing of  currant  bushes  is  over  three  and  one-half 
times  as  great  as  the  planting  of  gooseberry  bushes, 

(357) 


358  BUSH-FRUITS 

Like  the  currant,  the  gooseberry  is  a  northern 
plant,  and  refuses  to  be  content  in  a  hot  climate.  It 
proves  a  complete  failure  in  the  southern  states  and 
along  the  Gulf  coast.  In  Nebraska  it  seems  to  thrive 
better  than  the  currant.  It  loses  its  leaves  early,  and 
the  fruit  is  decidedly  smaller  than  in  the  eastern 
states,  yet  the  plants  make  a  good  growth,  appear 
healthy,  except  in  the  early  loss  of  leaves,  and  are 
fairly  productive.  The  English  varieties  produce  an 
occasional  fruit,  but  so  far  as  tested  may  be  termed  a 
practical  failure.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
summers  are  here  hot  and  dry,  consequently  unfavor- 
able to  these  fruits.  Frequently,  however,  the  early 
part  of  the  season  is  favorable,  so  that  the  fruit 
has  an  opportunity  to  mature  before  severe  heat  and 
drought  affect  it.  The  chief  injury  in  that  case  is 
undoubtedly  in  the  early  loss  of  leaves  and  conse- 
quent enfeebled  condition  of  the  bush  the  succeeding 
year. 

SOIL    AND   LOCATION 

The  gooseberry  is  much  like  the  currant  in  its  soil 
demands.  A  cool,  moist,  strong  and  rich  soil,  deeply 
worked,  is  the  requisition  which  it  makes,  and  the 
more  unfavorable  the  location  in  the  way  of  climate, 
the  more  closely  will  this  demand  in  the  way  of  soil 
need  to  be  met.  Well  to  the  north,  in  high  alti- 
tudes or  cool  northern  exposures,  it  will  succeed  well 
on  sandy  or  even  gravelly  loam,  though  the  rule  is 
that  the  lighter  the  soil  the  less  satisfactory  the  crop. 
Still,  the  opposite  extreme  is  not  advisable.  A  muck 


SOIL  AND   FERTILIZERS  359 

soil  will  produce  a  strong  growth  but  diminished  pro- 
ductiveness, while  a  heavy,  cold  clay  is  hard  to  work, 
and  may  cause  the  bushes  to  heave.  A  strong  clay 
loam,  not  liable  to  injury  from  drought,  but  well 
drained,  well  enriched,  deeply  worked  and  subsoiled, 
is  the  ideal.  A  cool  northern  exposure  is  desirable, 
if  it  can  be  had.  Partial  shade  may  be  an  advan- 
tage, but  the  plant  does  not  appear  to  thrive  under 
the  shade  of  trees  as  well  as  the  currant.  For  home 
use,  the  north  side  of  a  fence  or  of  buildings  is  a 
good  location.  Proper  selections  of  soil  and  location 
will  do  much  to  preserve  a  healthy  condition  of  the 
bush,  retain  the  foliage  and  prevent  mildew. 

FERTILIZERS 

Growers  of  long  experience  agree  that  no  fertilizer 
is  better  for  gooseberries  than  well -rotted  cow  ma- 
nure, very  liberally  applied.  The  plants  are  gross 
feeders,  and  a  heavy  top-dressing  every  autumn  will 
be  profitably  utilized.  This  may  be  supplemented  with 
a  dressing  of  wood  ashes,  or  potash  in  some  other 
form,  early  in  spring,  especially  if  the  supply  of  stable 
manure  has  been  deficient.  The  soil  must  be  rich,  to 
insure  good  results. 

PROPAGATION 

The  propagation  of  the  gooseberry  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  the  currant,  though  it  does  not  root 
so  readily  from  cuttings.  The  wood  does  not  mature 
as  early  in  the  fall  as  that  of  the  currant,  so  that 


3  60  B  USH-FR  PITS 

planting  is  oftener  delayed  until  spring,  though  the 
cuttings  may  well  be  taken  in  fall,  and  be  buried  outside 
or  placed  in  a  cellar  for  winter,  as  directed  for  cur- 
rants. If  left  until  spring,  they  must  be  taken  very 
early,  as  they  push  into  growth  at  the  first  touch  of 
warm  weather.  Cuttings  are  made  from  six  to  ten 
inches  long,  using  only  well -ripened  wood  of  the  cur- 
rent season 's  growth.  Formerly  the  lower  buds  were 
cut  out  before  planting,  in  order  to  prevent  suckers 
from  springing  up,  thus  securing  a  tree  form  of 
growth.  This  is  no  longer  followed  in  commercial 
growing,  though  it  may  be  desirable  where  attractive 
bushes  are  wanted  for  the  garden.  The  soil  should  be 
pressed  firmly  about  the  base  in  planting,  and  only 
one  or  two  buds  be  left  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Thorough  mulching  is  imperative,  if  the 
cuttings  are  planted  in  the  fall. 

Some  varieties,  like  Houghton,  root  readily  from 
cuttings,  but  Downing  and  other  strong,  vigorous 
growers  do  not,  consequently  layering  is  oftener  re- 
sorted to.  It  is  generally  believed  that  stockier  and 
better  plants  are  obtained  from  cuttings.  Bent  lay- 
ers root  readily,  but  this  is  too  slow,  and  the  number 
of  plants  produced  is  too  small  for  commercial  work, 
so  that  mound -layering  is  the  method  followed.  For 
this  purpose  the  plants  are  cut  back  severely  in  au- 
tumn, to  induce  many  shoots  to  grow  the  succeeding 
spring.  About  July  1,  when  these  have  made  their 
principal  growth,  earth  is  mounded  up  about  and 
among  them,  leaving  only  their  tips  exposed.  Ameri- 
can varieties  will  root  readily,  and  may  be  removed 


PROPAGATING   THE   GOOSEBERRY  361 

the  same  autumn,  but  English  varieties  are  left  in 
this  position  for  two  seasons.  The  last  of  October,  or 
before  the  ground  freezes,  the  soil  is  thrown  back,  and 
the  shoots  are  cut  away  and  trenched  or  buried  in  the 
cellar  for  spring  planting.  In  commercial  work  two 
grades  are  commonly  made.  In  spring  they  are 
planted  in  nursery  rows  and  cultivated  for  one  year, 
when  they  are  ready  to  go  on  the  market.  Some 
roots  will  have  formed  during  the  process  of  lay- 
ering, and  the  plants  will  be  in  condition  to  make 
a  much  better  growth  when  planted  out  than  cut- 
tings taken  without  previous  layering. 

Spring  is  a  busy  season  with  the  nurseryman 
and  fruit-grower,  and  the  gooseberry  is  so  impatient 
at  the  approach  of  warm  weather  that  the  layers  are 
often  planted  in  nursery  rows  when  removed  from 
the  parent  plants  in  fall,  and  mulched  during  winter. 
In  favorable  climates  this  will  prove  satisfactory,  but 
where  the  winters  are  dry  and  open,  as  on  the 
plains,  the  loss  of  plants  is  likely  to  be  large,  unless 
they  are  wholly  covered  with  earth.  If  bushes  are  to 
be  managed  principally  or  exclusively  for  the  produc- 
tion of  plants,  they  should  be  set  in  rows  eight  feet 
apart  and  close  together  in  the  row.  This  will  facili- 
tate the  work  of  mounding  and  removing  the  soil  in 
layering,  as  much  of  it  can  be  done  with  a  plow. 

For  home  use,  the  suckers  which  spring  up  about 
the  base  of  the  old  plants  may  be  removed  and 
planted.  They  commonly  have  some  roots  attached, 
and  grow  readily.  The  older  writers  warn  us  against 
their  use,  but  apparently  for  the  reason  that  they,  too, 


362  BUSH-FRUITS 

are  likely  to  throw  up  suckers  from  the  roots,  and 
when  the  fashion  was  to  grow  the  plants  only  in 
tree  form  this  was  considered  a  serious  fault.  Bent 
layers  may  be  employed  in  a  small  way.  By  this 
method,  the  branches  are  held  beneath  the  soil  by  a 
forked  peg  and  the  tip  allowed  to  grow  upward.  A 
slit  is  made  on  the  under  side  of  the  arched  portion 
which  is  buried  in  the  ground,  in  order  to  induce 
more  rapid  rooting,  by  checking  in  some  degree  the 
flow  of  sap  from  the  parent  plant.  Layering  the 
tips,  like  black  raspberries,  is  also  said  to  succeed, 
though  not  a  common  method. 

A  writer  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1885,  p. 
49,  says  that  the  readiest  and  quickest  way  to  propa- 
gate the  English  gooseberry  is  by  pieces  of  its  own 
roots.  Old  bushes  are  dug  up  in  spring,  the  roots 
chopped  in  pieces  three  to  four  inches  long,  and 
planted  in  nursery  rows  three  or  four  inches  deep. 
He  says  that  they  will  grow  more  in  one  year  than  a 
cutting  will  in  two  or  three.  This  method  is  cer- 
tainly not  in  common  use,  and  I  cannot  vouch  for  its 
success.  Two  trials  in  the  greenhouse  early  in  spring, 
embracing  both  English  and  American  varieties,  have 
resulted  in  complete  failure. 

New  varieties  must  come  from  seeds,  which  should 
be  treated  as  directed  for  currants.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  grow  plants  by  this  method.  There  is  likely  to 
be  little  retrogression,  and  in  rare  cases  there  may  be 
an  advance  in  valuable  qualities.  A  French  article 
which  appeared  in  the  Horticulturist  in  1849,*  trans- 

*Horticulturist,  3:557. 


PLANTING  363 

lated  from  the  Revue  Horticole,  states  that  seed- 
lings withstand  the  heat  of  French  summers  much 
better  than  cuttings,  and  recommends  propagation  by 
seeds  rather  than  by  other  methods. 

Grafting  is  easily  done,  the  Missouri  currant  being 
the  stock  oftenest  used.  According  to  Robert  Man- 
ning,* the  best  results  are  obtained  by  side -grafting 
under  the  bark  in  August,  the  top  being  cut  down  in 
spring  and  the  snag  removed  afterward,  as  with 
budded  trees.  Although  quite  extensively  practiced  at 
one  time  in  the  production  of  standard  bushes,  and 
as  a  supposed  remedy  for  the  mildew,  the  fad  soon 
died  out. 

PLANTING 

The  methods  of  planting  recommended  for  the  cur- 
rant are  equally  applicable  to  the  gooseberry.  If 
rows  are  placed  six  feet  apart  in  the  direction  most 
convenient  for  cultivating,  and  the  plants  four  feet 
apart  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  order  to  afford 
opportunity  for  cross  cultivation  when  the  plants  are 
young,  and  at  intervals  thereafter,  they  will  have 
room  enough  for  proper  development,  with  convenient 
space  for  their  care  and  for  gathering  the  fruit. 

The  same  arguments  as  with  the  currant  will  apply 
in  regard  to  the  choice  of  season  for  planting.  These 
fruits  drop  their  leaves  so  early  that  fall  planting  may 
be  done  much  earlier  than  with  most  other  fruits, 
even  in  September,  allowing  the  plants  to  become 


*Trans.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc.  1879:37. 


364  BUSH-FRUITS 

well  established  before  the  advent  of  cold  weather. 
This  is  one  of  the  hardiest  fruits,  but  the  grower 
who  withholds  the  proper  care  in  planting  will  inevi- 
tably reap  the  recompense  for  his  ill  doing. 

AFTER   TREATMENT 

Since  the  gooseberry  is  subject  to  greater  injury 
from  drought  than  the  currant,  there  is  the  more 
urgent  need  of  complete  and  thorough  cultivation. 
As  with  the  currant,  it  should  be  shallow  but  fre- 
quent. Hardness  and  dry  ness  of  the  soil  are  espe- 
cially injurious.  The  better  the  cultivation,  the  cooler 
and  moister  can  the  soil  be  kept,  and  hence  the  nearer 
will  be  the  approach  to  the  normal  conditions  under 
which  the  gooseberry  is  happy  and  its  fruit  grows  fat. 
Like  the  proper  selection  of  soil  and  location,  suitable 
cultivation  will  materially  aid  in  preserving  the  health 
of  the  plants  and  preventing  mildew,  though  by  no 
means  a  remedy  for  that  disease.  Mulching  also  suc- 
ceeds well,  preserving  the  soil  in  a  cool  and  moist 
condition  even  better  than  cultivation.  • 

PRUNING 

Left  to  itself,  the  gooseberry  soon  becomes  a 
tangled  thicket,  the  fruit  in  consequence  being  small 
and  difficult  to  pick.  It  produces  much  more  wood 
than  ought  to  remain  for  each  year's  fruiting.  It 
is  imperative  that  this  be  reduced,  if  the  best  results 
are  to  be  hoped  for.  The  particular  manner  in  which 


PRUNING    THE    GOOSEBERRY  365 

it  is  done  is  of  far  less  importance.  Berries  are  pro- 
duced from  all  parts  of  the  bush  except  the  present 
year  shoots  and  the  very  old  wood,  but  the  finest 
fruits  are  borne  on  one-year-old  branches.  After  two 
or  three  years  in  bearing  the  wood  begins  to  fail, 
and  the  fruit  borne  from  it  likewise  declines.  The 
principle,  therefore,  should  be  to  carefully,  guard  the 
vigorous  young  wood,  allowing  it  to  replace  that 
which  is  older  before  the  latter  has  a  chance  to  fail. 
The  weak  young  shoots  should  be  cut  away,  or  per- 
haps be 'cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds,  if  the  bush 
is  still  thin,  the  vigorous  ones  moderately  cut  back, 
and  as  much  old  wood  cut  away  as  can  be  spared 
without  interfering  with  the  productiveness  of  the 
bush.  Benj.  G.  Smith  states*  that  he  prunes  as 
carefully  as  he  does  grape  vines,  some  on  the  spur 
system  and  some  with  long  shoots,  with  equal  suc- 
cess. This  is  significant,  in  showing  that  the  method 
is  of  minor  importance.  The  essential  thing  is  to  so 
renew  that  the  bearing  wood  shall  always  be  strong 
and  vigorous,  and  the  amount  of  such  wood  not 
greater  than  the  bush  is  able  to  support  and  fill  with 
well  -  developed  fruit.  In  northern  localities  an  open 
top  is  desirable,  but  where  the  summers  are  hot  a 
thicker  growth,  with  more  shade,  may  be  better. 
Shortening -back  the  lower  branches  severely  will  aid 
in  keeping  the  fruit  up  from  the  ground. 

In  the  tree  form  of  pruning,  from  six  to  ten  main 
branches  are  allowed  to  grow,  and  all  suckers  are 
cut  away.  These  main  branches  may  be  allowed 

*Trans.  Mass.  Hort.  Soe.  1883:123. 


366  BUSH-FRUITS 

to  divide  as  the  bush  gets  older.  They  are  an- 
nually shortened  to  a  few  inches  of  new  growth 
and  the  side  shoots  cut  back  to  from  one  to  four 
buds. 

In  practical  culture,  thinning  is  all  done  by  the 
amount  of  wood  removed.  In  the  production  of  prize 
berries,  as  practiced  by  English  growers,  thinning  is 
an  absolute  necessity.  The  largest  fruit  can  only  be 
produced  by  closely  limiting  the  number  which  the 
plant  is  allowed  to  carry.  Thinning  is  no  less  impor- 
tant in  commercial  work,  because  done  by  removing 
wood,  instead  of  individual  fruits. 

Various  methods  of  training  have  been  reported. 
In  some  cases  they  have  been  trained  as  single  stems 
and  tied  to  stakes;  in  others  they  have  been  made  to 
cover  arbors  by  carefully  training  up  shoots  at  given 
distances  apart.  Some  very  remarkable  bushes  have 
been  reported.  In  the  tree  form  they  have  been  said* 
to  reach  a  height  of  sixteen  feet,  and  others  have 
been  trained  as  standards  with  clear  stems  five  feet 
high.  In  the  Transactions  of  the  London  Horticul- 
tural Society,  Vol.  V,  p.  490,  a  plant  is  reported 
which  was  forty -six  years  old,  measuring  twelve 
yards  in  circumference  and  which  had  produced 
several  pecks  of  fruit  annually  for  thirty  years. 
Another,  thirty  years  old,  was  trained  to  a  build- 
ing, and  measured  53  feet  4  inches  from  one  ex- 
tremity to  the  other.  This  bore  four  or  five  pecks 
of  fruit  annually. 


*Tilton's  Journal,  9:378. 


GATHERING    THE    FRUIT  367 

GATHERING   AND   MARKETING 

Picking  gooseberries  looks  more  attractive  than  it 
is.  I  well  remember  the  longing  eyes  with  which  a 
crowd  of  inexperienced  pickers  watched  the  goose- 
berry rows,  when  working  on  currants,  and  with 
what  eagerness  they  pounced  upon  them  when  at  last 
the  currants  were  done.  The  fruit  looked  so  much 
larger  than  the  currants,  and  so  nice  to  pick!  But 
experience  brought  a  great  change.  They  had  for- 
gotten to  reckon  with  the  thorns,  and  soon  longed 
for  currants  again.  The  Downing,  our  best  well- 
tested  variety,  is  one  of  the  worst  in  this  respect. 
The  thorns  are  always  ready,  and  apparently  never 
fail  to  get  in  their  work.  This  feature  does  much 
to  check  increased  cultivation  of  the  gooseberry.  Vig- 
orous pruning,  to  keep  the  bushes  thin  and  open, 
will  materially  aid  in  the  matter,  and  the  picker 
soon  learns  to  avoid  too  careless  contact.  Another 
method  of  circumventing  the  difficulty  is  possible, 
from  the  fact  that  the  berries  are  marketed  when 
green  and  hard.  This  consists  in  wearing  thick 
leather  gloves  and  in  stripping  the  berries  from  the 
branches.  They  are  then  run  through  a  fanning 
mill  to  drive  out  the  leaves.  This  method  is 
most  satisfactory  in  commercial  work.  It  will  not 
answer  for  ripe  fruit,  which  is  too  easily  crushed. 
Pickers  are  paid  about  1%  or  1%  cents  per  quart, 
and  will  average  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  quarts 
per  day. 

At   the    present    time    the   market   calls    for   green 


368  BUSH-FRUITS 

gooseberries  only.  In  this  stage  the  fruit  will  carry 
almost  any  distance  in  first-class  condition,  and  need 
not  be  sold  the  day  it  arrives.  Ten -pound  grape 
baskets  are  the  most  satisfactory  packages  for  shipping 
and  general  market  purposes,  though  the  quart  berry 
baskets  are  still  much  used.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  pack 
this  fruit  for  shipment.  It  is  so  clean  and  solid,  and 
there  is  a  feeling  of  security  that  it  will  remain  so 
until  it  reaches  the  consumer.  The  markets  are  sel- 
dom overstocked,  though  P.  T.  Quinn  stated  before 
the  Pennsylvania  Fruit  Growers7  Association  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  1872,*  that  he  had  seen  1,000  barrels 
thrown  overboard  for  want  of  a  market.  To  this 
Charles  Downing  added  that  they  ought  to  be  all 
dumped  into  the  river,  which  shows  that  the  goose- 
berry was  not  a  favorite  with  him. 


USES 

The  fruit  is  commonly  used  in  pies,  stewed,  canned 
or  for  jelly.  That  it  makes  a  good  jelly  is  evidenced 
by  an  ingenious  process  of  imitating  it  reported  by 
the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1884,  page  204,  which 
states  that  gooseberry  jelly  is  made  from  seaweed, 
the  color  being  given  by  fuchsine  or  similar  material, 
and  the  flavor  by  a  mixture  of  acetic  ether,  tartaric 
acid  and  other  substances. 

The  good  qualities  of  the  gooseberry  are  not  con- 
fined to  the  green  state,  and  there  is  a  growing 


"Horticulturist,  1872:112. 


KEEPING    THE    FRUIT  369 

appreciation  of  its  value  when  ripe.  The  flavor  of 
a  ripe  gooseberry  is  hardly  to  be  surpassed  among 
fruits.  When  fully  ripe  and  sweet  it  makes  a  fine 
table  fruit,  to  be  eaten  with  sugar  and  cream.  Dr. 
T.  H.  Hoskins  is  authority  for  the  statement*  that 
ripe  Houghtons  are  an  excellent  substitute  for  cran- 
berries, as  a  sauce  for  meat.  So  close  is  the  re- 
semblance that  at  his  table  it  is  often  necessary  to 
explain  that  they  are  not  cranberries.  They  are 
cooked  enough  to  burst  the  skins,  then  put  up  in 
fruit  cans,  but  not  sweetened  till  wanted  for  use. 
Since  they  are  much  cheaper  than  cranberries,  and 
can  be  grown  anywhere,  this  is  a  strong  point  in 
their  favor. 

A  method  of  keeping  green  gooseberries  which 
seems  to  have  been  in  vogue  before  the  process  of 
canning  was  known,  consists  in  filling  a  jug  or  bot- 
tle with  sound  fruit,  taking  care  that  no  bruised  or 
crushed  ones  go  in,  then  filling  with  cold  spring  or 
well  water,  corking  tightly  and  putting  away  in  a 
cool  cellar.  Doctor  Hoskinst  makes  the  statement 
that  they  can  be  so  preserved  perfectly  the  year 
round,  without  sealing,  though  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended to  seal  them.  This  method  is  certainly  very 
simple  and,  if  as  satisfactory  as  it  is  said  to  be, 
makes  fresh  gooseberry  pie  available  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  Another  method  of  keeping,  recommended 
by  the  Prairie  Farmer,  J  is  to  put  them  into  bottles 

*Rept.  Michigan  Hort.  Soc.  1884:262. 
tlbid:  277. 

^Horticulturist,  3:132. 
X 


370  BUSH-FRUITS 

when  perfectly  dry,  then  cork  the  bottles  tight,  cover 
the  corks  with  sealing  wax,  and  partially  cover  the 
bottles  with  sand  or  earth  in  the  cellar. 

DURATION  OP  PLANTATIONS 

In  the  older  method  of  pruning  to  tree  form,  the 
plants  began  to  fail  after  six  or  eight  years,  and  soon 
became  unprofitable,  generally  bearing  their  best  fruit 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  from  planting.  In  bush 
training,  they  remain  in  vigorous  conditions  much 
longer.  Plantations  twenty  or  twenty -five  years  old, 
and  still  profitable,  are  not  uncommon.  Much  depends 
on  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  renewing  process 
is  carried  on.  Liberal  fertilizing  and  good  culture  will 
also  aid  greatly.  Generally  it  will  be  found  more 
profitable  to  discard  them  after  ten  or  twelve  years, 
for  replanting  is  not  expensive,  and  the  younger 
plants  will  be  more  vigorous  and  bear  finer  fruit. 
A  slight  difference  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
crops  will  soon  offset  the  cost  of  replanting.  No 
rule  as  to  number  of  years  can  be  valid,  for  of  two 
plantations  of  the  same  age,  one  may  still  be  perfectly 
satisfactory  and  the  other  wholly  unprofitable,  owing 
to  differences  in  treatment  and  conditions.  In  com- 
mercial work,  a  safe  rule  will  be  to  replant  as  soon 
as  the  first  trace  of  waning  vigor  can  be  detected. 
It  is  not  a  question  of  how  long  they  will  continue 
to  bear  well,  but  of  which  will  prove  the  more  pro- 
fitable, the  old  planting,  with  its  regular  care,  or  a 
new  one,  with  the  added  expense  of  another  plant- 


HARDINESS    AND    YIELD  371 

ing.  If  these  points  were  carefully  weighed,  replant- 
ing would  doubtless  be  much  more  frequent  than  it 
now  is. 

HARDINESS 

Cold  has  apparently  no  eifect  on  the  gooseberry, 
at  least  such  temperatures  as  are  likely  to  be  reached 
anywhere  in  the  United  States,  and  even  far  to  the 
north.  It  stands  unprotected  through  our  severest 
winters  without  the  loss  of  a  bud,  but  if  moved 
southward  it  soon  becomes  uncomfortable.  It  can- 
not endure  scorching  summer  suns. 

YIELD 

Average  yields  of  any  fruit  are  hard  to  give,  for 
results  vary  so  widely.  Full  grown  plants,  vigorous 
and  well  cared  for,  ought  to  yield  from  five  to  eight 
quarts  per  plant,  or,  roughly  speaking,  from  300  to 
500  bushels  per  acre,  with  plants  four  by  six  feet 
apart.  One  grower  from  Canada  reports*  one -half 
bushel  per  plant,  set  at  this  distance.  This  is  excep- 
tional, and  should  not  be  considered  as  a  basis  for 
estimates.  At  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, in  189 l,t  plants  gave  an  average  of  over  ten 
pounds  of  fruit  each,  or  about  eight  quarts.  This 
would  make  about  450  bushels  per  acre  with  plants 
set  four  by  six  feet  apart.  Fuller!  says  that  from 

*Popular  Gardening,  2:145. 
t Annual  Rept.  1891:474. 
tSmall  Fruit  Culturist,  p.  222. 


372  BUSH-FRUITS 

200   to  400  bushels  per   acre   of   native   sorts   can   be 
grown. 

PROFITS 

On  the  whole  the  gooseberry  is  one  of  the  most 
reliable  and  generally  one  of  the  most  profitable  small 
fruits  grown.  The  price  per  quart  is  not  high,  but  the 
yield  is  large  and  the  loss  little.  The  average  price 
in  the  New  York  market  seems  to  be  about  $2  per 
bushel,  though  fine  fruit  sometimes  reaches  double 
that  price.  A.  S.  Fuller  once  said*  that  at  $1.75 
per  bushel  they  paid  him  well,  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  they  should  not.  Although  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  fruits  for  shipping,  they  often  pay 
unusually  well  in  the  home  market.  If  people  could 
be  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  ripe  fruit,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  consumption  of  the  gooseberry 
should  not  be  immensely  increased,  with  correspond- 
ing benefit  both  to  growers  and  consumers. 

ENGLISH   GOOSEBERRIES 

Although  frequent  mention  has  been  made  of  the 
English  varieties,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  word 
further  regarding  their  culture  in  the  United  States. 
Like  all  European  fruits,  they  have  been  tried  again 
and  again,  yet  they  have  only  succeeded  here  and 
there,  when  meeting  peculiarly  favorable  conditions. 
Benj.  G.  Smith,  of  Cambridge,  has  successfully  cul- 
tivated them  for  years,  and  occasionally  other  growers 

^Horticulturist,  1873:112 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES  373 

have  succeeded,  but  the  general  fact  remains  that  the 
English  gooseberry  is  not  a  success  in  America.  It 
may  produce  a  few  good  berries  when  young,  but  is 
almost  sure  to  fail  later.  It  is  said  to  thrive  well  in 
Washington,*  the  climate  of  the  northwest  coast  be- 
ing more  like  that  of  England.  In  1884,  a  motion 
was  made  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Pomologi- 
cal  Society  to  strike  all  English  varieties  from  their 
list,  but  it  was  barely  lost. 

The  reason  for  this  failure  of  the  large  and  fine 
English  Gooseberries  in  the  United  States  is  that  they 
are  constantly  attacked  by  mildew. 

Any  number  of  remedies  have  been  suggested 
against  the  mildew  in  times  past,  the  most  common 
practice  being  to  mulch  the  ground  with  manure, 
stones,  tin  cans,  old  boots,  or  other  strange  material 
which  might  be  thought  to  possess  especial  virtue. 
Salt  applied  to  the  soil  was  vainly  tried,  and  at  one 
time  grafting  the  plants  on  the  Missouri  currant  was 
thought  to  be  a  remedy.  Any  of  these  things  which 
afford  a  nearer  approach  toward  the  ideal  conditions 
demanded  by  the  gooseberry  will  aid  in  preventing 
the  mildew,  but  none  of  them  are  infallible.  Yet 
recent  experiments  show  that  under  favorable  con- 
ditions we  can  grow  the  English  gooseberry  by  giv- 
ing it  the  proper  attention.  Thorough  and  vigorous 
treatment  with  potassium  sulphide  or  with  Bordeaux 
mixture,  as  directed  under  the  discussion  of  this 
disease,  will  hold  it  in  check  and  admit  of  satisfactory 
crops  being  obtained.  No  slovenly  or  careless  work 

*Gardener's  Monthly,  1886:271. 


374  BUSH-FRUITS 

will  answer;  the  work  must  be  thorough,  and  done 
at  ths  right  time,  or  the  enemy  will  still  gain  the 
mastery.  Whether  the  English  gooseberries  are  worth 
growing,  especially  for  home  use,  is  a  fair  question. 
Their  only  advantage  is  in  their  size  and  appear- 
ance, which  of  course  commend  them  for  market  grow- 
ing. Most  varieties  are  inferior  to  our  own  in 
quality.  The  reader  will  find  another  account  of 
gooseberries,  by  Beach,  in  Bulletin  119,  New  York 
Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

VARIETIES   OF  CURE  ANTS 

So  far  as  fruit -producing  species  are  concerned,  the 
botany  of  the  currant  is  simple,  for  the  currant  culture 
of  the  United  States  is  practically  confined  to  a 
single  species,  Eibes  rubrum.  It  is  to  this  species  that 
all  our  red  and  white  varieties  belong.  In  its  wild  state 
the  species  is  found  both  in  Europe  and  America,  and 
seems  to  be  equally  well  adapted  to  the  cooler  portions 
of  either  hemisphere.  It  is  in  all  cases  a  northern 
plant,  found  in  cool,  damp  situations,  and  it  objects 
to  any  radical  change  from  these  conditions.  In  culti- 
vation, it  has  become  somewhat  variable  in  character  of 
fruit  and  foliage.  Instances  are  reported*  in  which 
both  red  and  white  fruits  have  been  produced  upon  the 
same  branch.  In  one  caset  three  red,  three  white  and 
one  striped  fruit  were  found  in  the  same  cluster. 

The  black  currant  of  the  garden  is  a  European 
species,  Ribes  nigrum.  Although  not  found  in  America 
in  the  wild  state  it  seems  to  have  had  no  trouble  in 
adapting  itself  to  American  conditions.  The  American 
people,  on  the  other  hand,  have  not  been  so  successful 
in  adapting  their  tastes  to  the  peculiar  flavor  which  it 
has  to  offer,  and  the  species  has  never  become  popular. 


*Darwin,  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication  1:  400. 
tGardener's  Chronicle  26:  268. 

(375) 


376  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  closely  related  American  species,  R.  Americanum, 
seems  to  possess  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  European 
one,  and  is  more  ornamental.  It  might  well  receive 
attention  from  plant  breeders.  An  American  species 
much  oftener  seen  in  cultivation  is  R.  aureum,  better 
known  as  the  flowering  currant.  This,  though  a  black 
currant,  is  very  different  from  the  two  preceding.  Its 
fruit  is  often  large,  but  produced  in  few- flowered  clusters 
and  ripens  singly,  so  that  it  must  be  picked  one  by  one. 
Its  flavor,  though  peculiar,  has  not  the  disagreeable 
twang  of  the  true  black  currants,  but  it  lacks  the  quali- 
ties necessary  to  a  good  culinary  fruit.  Its  most  recent 
boom  as  a  fruit -producing  plant  has  been  under  the 
name  Crandall. 

Ribes  aureum,  R.  sanguineum,  and  a  hybrid  between 
the  two,  known  as  R.  Gordonianum,  are  frequently  cul- 
tivated for  ornament,  the  last  two  being  more  beautiful 

but  less  known  than  the  first. 

• 

HISTORY 

The  currant  is  thought  to  have  been  unknown  to 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  no  mention  of  it  is  found 
in  any  of  their  writings.  It  seems  to  have  first  come 
prominently  into  cultivation  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  according  to  Sturtevant,*  re- 
ceived its  modern  improved  form  within  fifty  years 
following.  The  early  English  names  "corans"  and 
"currans"  are  thought  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  the  little  Corinth  grapes  or 

*History  of  the  Currant,  Trans.  Western  New  York  Hort.  Soc.,  1887:  55. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    CURRANT  377 

raisins,  these  in  turn  taking  their  names  from  Corinth. 
In  England,  at  times,  currants  were  known  as  "red 
gooseberries"  and  "beyond -sea  gooseberries."  An 
equivalent  to  the  latter  name,  "groseilles  d'outre  mer," 
was  also  applied  to  them  in  France.  These  names  indi- 
cate that,  if  not  native  to  these  countries,  the  cultivated 
forms,  at  least,  were  received  from  elsewhere.  The 
Dutch  name  "over -zee"  indicates  the  same  thing. 
Doctor  Sturtevant  thinks  that  the  currant  was  first 
brought  into  culture  from  the  northern  countries 
through  the  Danes  and  Normans,  though  DeCandolle 
appears  to  doubt  this.*  The  greatest  improvement, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  in  the  low  countries. 

All  the  principal  types  of  the  cultivated  currants 
are  found  in  the  wild  plants,  and  were  reported  at  an 
early  date.  Improvement  has  only  been  within  a 
limited  range.  Culture  and  fertility  often  appear  to 
have  a  greater  influence  on  this  fruit  than  parentage. 
There  are  growers  who  still  believe  that  the  old  Red 
Dutch  variety  is  superior  to  any  of  the  more  recent  in- 
troductions. It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  with  good 
culture  it  will  surpass  the  newer  ones  under  neglect. 
Thos.  Andrew  Knightt  was  of  the  opinion  that  by 
repeated  growth  from  seed  the  currant  would  become 
sweeter,  and  perhaps  in  time,  even  insipid.  The  ma- 
jority of  seedlings  grown  by  him  from  white  crossed 
by  red  currants  were  red,  but  many  first  turned  a  color 
similar  to  the  White  Dutch,  and  then  became  brighter 
in  color  when  ripe.  He  expressed  himself  as  sur- 

*0rigin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  277. 
tTrans.  London  Hort.  Soc.  3:  86. 


378  BUSH-FRUITS 

prised  at  the  range  of  variation  which  appeared,  it 
being  much  greater  than  he  had  expected.  Nearly  all 
were  mild  and  sweeter  than  the  red  parents,  some 
were  insipid,  and  some  even  showed  a  medicinal  fla- 
vor. Experience  does  not  seem  to  bear  out  his  expec- 
tations in  regard  to  an  increasing  sweetness,  as  the 
newer  varieties  are  many  of  them  more  acid  than 
older  ones.  D.  S.  Marvin*  reports  less  tendency  to 
sport  among  currant  seedlings  than  in  any  other  fruit 
with  which  he  has  had  experience.  He  also  adds  that 
there  is  little  or  no  tendency  to  reversion,  nearly  all 
seedlings  being  as  good  as  the  parent,  except  in  case 
of  the  Fay,  seedlings  of  which  commonly  bear  smaller 
fruit  than  the  parent,  nearly  half  of  them  being  white. 
Perhaps  through  its  long  sojourn  in  the  low  countries 
the  currant  has  inherited  something  of  the  staid  Dutch 
qualities  of  the  inhabitants,  and  does  not  readily  depart 
from  long  established  customs.  Yet  no  fruit,  however 
stable,  can  long  resist  the  influences  of  persistent  and 
systematic  breeding,  and  the  currant  has  received  too 
little  attention  in  this  line.  There  is  no  need  that 
the  currant  should  depart  widely  from  the  present 
types,  for  there  is  nothing  wrong  with  them.  A 
steady  improvement  along  these  same  lines,  with 
perhaps  a  limited  reduction  in  acidity,  is  all  that  is 
needed,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  this  should  not 
go  on  as  long  as  horticulture  exists. 

The  lists  in  this  chapter  and  the  next  are  intended 
to  catalogue  all  the  varieties  of  currants  and  gooseber- 
ries known  in  this  country  up  to  the  close  of  1897, 

*Amer.  Garden,  11:  716. 


VARIETIES   OF   CURRANTS  379 

RED    AND    WHITE    CURRANTS 

(Eibes  rubrum) 

Attractor. — A  variety  from  France.  Plant  moderately  vigorous, 
with  remarkably  deep-lobed,  sharply  and  deeply  serrated  leaves. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  yellowish  white.  Bunches  short. 

Bertin  Seedling.— Appears  in  the  catalogue  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for  1869. 

Boston  Lady. — Mentioned  as  a  white  variety,  with  fruit  unusually 
large,  bearing  profusely,  a  quart  having  been  picked  from  twelve 
inches  of  a  single  stem.— Gar.  Month.  1860:  250. 

Bronze. — Mentioned  in  Hovey's  Magazine  for  1861,  p.  101,  as 
having  been  under  discussion  at  the  meeting  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society. 

Buist  Long-bunched. — Originated  by  Robert  Buist  of  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  Described  as  a  strong,  vigorous  grower,  very  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  large,  deep  red,  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in  flavor. 
Bunches  long  and  tapering.  Leaves  large  and  very  thick. 

Caywood  Seedling. — A  seedling  received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station  from  A.  J.  Caywood  &  Son,  of  Marlboro,  N.  Y. 
Described  as  a  moderate  grower,  with  spreading  or  drooping 
branches,  very  productive.  Fruit  more  acid  than  the  White 
Grape,  of  good  quality,  attractive,  translucent,  tinged  with  pale 
greenish  yellow.  Bunches  of  medium  size,  about  two  and  one-half 
inches  long.  Berries  large. 

Champagne  (Pheasant's  Eye,  Grosellier  a  Fruit  Couleur  de 
Chair). — Of  foreign  origin.  Described  as  vigorous  and  productive. 
Fruit  large,  acid,  not  rich,  of  a  delicate  reddish  pink,  like  a  cross 
between  the  red  and  white,  though  the  wood,  foliage,  and  growth 
place  it  at  once  among  the  reds.  Bunches  medium,  loose,  slightly 
tapering.  Ripens  late. 

Champion. — A  white  variety,  described  as  tall,  vigorous,  and  up- 
right, with  bunches  of  medium  length.  Berries  a  shade  lighter 
than  White  Dutch,  uneven  in  size,  averaging  below  medium.  In- 
ferior to  White  Dutch  in  appearance,  flavor,  and  quality.— Geneva 
(N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95:  427. 

Cherry.—  This  variety  was  obtained  from  Italy  by  M.  Adrienne 
Seneclause,  a  distinguished  horticulturist  of  France.  He  received 
it  among  a  lot  of  other  currants  known  there  under  the  name  Eibes 
acerifolium.  He  gave  it  the  name  inconsequence  of  the  extraordi- 
nary size  of  the  fruit.  It  was  fruited  at  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  1843,  and  from  the  plants  there  grown  was  figured  in 
the  "Annales  de  Flore  et  de  Pomone"  for  Feb.  1844.  (Roe  says 


380  BUSH-FRUITS 

1848.)  It  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  fruit-growers  in  the  United 
States  by  Dr.  William  W.  Valk,  of  Flushing,  L.  I.,  in  1846.*  It 
was  figured  in  the  Horticulturist  as  a  frontispiece  to  the  volume  for 
1854  ;  also  in  Hovey's  Magazine,  1855,  p.  425.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  known  varieties  at  the  present  day,  being  largely  planted  both 
for  market  and  home  use.  It  is  described  as  vigorous,  stocky,  and 
compact  when  young,  but  becoming  spreading  with  age.  It 
tends  to  produce  a  single  stock,  not  suckering  as  freely  as  other 
kinds.  The  buds,  at  or  near  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  are  often  im- 
perfect or  wanting,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  Versaillaise. 
Its  fruit  is  borne  in  short-stemmed  clusters  close  to  the  wood, 
which  renders  it  somewhat  difficult  to  pick.  Fruit  averaging 
large,  though  not  uniformly  so,  juicy,  and  fine  flavored.  Color 
bright  red.  Season  early. 

Climbing. — One  of  the  most  interesting  variations  in  character 
of  plant  is  a  climbing  currant  reported  from  Chautauqua  Co., 
N.  Y.f  The  plant  was  found  growing  wild  in  a  thicket  when  quite 
young,  and  transferred  to  the  garden.  After  its  climbing  propensity 
became  evident  it  was  planted  near  the  house  and  trained 
against  it,  reaching  a  height  of  twelve  feet  or  more.  It  proved  to 
be  very  productive,  the  fruit  being  of  excellent  quality.  It  is 
really  not  a  climber,  but  produces  long  and  weak  branches,  which 
may  be  secured  to  a  trellis  or  wall.  The  fruit  is  large  and  red, 
nearly  or  quite  the  size  of  Fay.  (Fig.  67.) 

Dana  White. — A  white  variety  raised  in  Massachusetts. 
Bunches  long  and  tapering,  with  berries  as  large  as  Varsaillaise, 
resembling  the  White  Grape  in  color  and  quality.  Fuller  says  that 
he  obtained,  from  what  he  supposed  to  be  a  reliable  source,  five 
distinct  varieties  under  this  name. 

Dr.  Brete. — A  French  variety  imported  and  cultivated  by  Wil- 
liam S.  Carpenter.  Spoken  of  as  a  prolific  bearer,  with  a  long 
stem  and  short  bunch.  Fruit  large,  of  excellent  quality.  Illus- 
trated with  a  full  page  engraving  in  the  Horticulturist  for  1870, 
p.  45. 

Eclipse. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  H.  S.  Anderson,  of  Union  Springs,  N.  Y.  Described  as  a 
vigorous,  upright  grower,  with  bunches  of  medium  length.  Fruit 
varying  from  small  to  large,  comparatively  mild,  acid,  of  good 
color,  somewhat  lighter  than  Fay.— Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  95  :  419. 

Fay. — Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  Cherry  or  Victoria,  which  origi- 
nated in  1868  with  Lincoln  Fay,  in  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.  It 

"Horticulturist  1:  439. 
tAmer.  Garden  12:  575. 


RED   AN,D     WHITM    CURRANTS 


381 


was  introduced  about  1883,  and  became  widely  known  and  very 
generally  prized,  although  receiving  adverse  mention  from  some 
quarters.  Described  as  vigorous,  though  not  as  strong  as  Cherry, 
somewhat  spreading,  with  the  lower  branches  often  trailing  on  the 
ground.  Clusters  long,  with  a  good  stem  between  the  branch  and 
the  fruit,  making  it  easy  to  gather.  Fruit  varying  from  medium 
to  large,  uniform  in  size,  of  good  quality,  darker  than  Eed  Dutch. 


*  $S3^ 


Fig.  67.    Climbing  currant. 


Pulp  less  acid  than  the  Cherry.  The  comments  on  this  variety, 
made  at  different  times  and  places,  afford  interesting  reading. 
Witness  the  following: 

One  of  the  few  new  fruits  which  justify  the  rosy  promises  of  the  advertiser.— 
E.  Williams,  Garden  and  Forest,  1:  283.  Additional  commendation.—  Ibid,  356. 

More  productive  than  other  sorts,  with  fruit  as  large  and  as  good,  possessing 
one  fault,  and  that  being  that  the  plants  tend  to  develop  a  trailing  habit,  the 
lower  branches  lying  on  the  ground,  curling  up  at  the  end.—  Ibid,  3:  405. 

Gooxl  size,  but  not  productive  enough  in  Indiana.—  Ibid,  6:347. 

No  larger  than  Cherry  and  Versaillaise,  less  productive,  and  much  inferior  in 
quality.—  American  Garden,  1888:  300. 


382  BUSH-FRUITS 

Has  not  been  over-praised.— T.  Greiuer,  American  Garden,  1889:  47. 

Widely  successful,  but  sometimes  condemned.— T.  H.  Hoskins,  Ibid,  212. 

Fay,  Red  Dutch,  and  White  Grape  the  only  profitable  ones.— Ibid,  294. 

Not  very  satisfactory  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.-Ibid,  310. 

Good  on  light  soil.    Better  with  age.— Ibid,  349. 

Largest  and  most  prolific  currant  we  have  seen  growing.— Pop.  Gar.,  11 :  36. 

Somewhat  deceiving.  Has  the  largest  berries,  but  these  contain  less  pulp  and 
juice  than  other  varieties,  hence  makes  less  jelly  than  smaller  currants.  Its  size 
largely  due  to  seed  development.  Strong  shoots  from  the  bottom  often  become 
loosened  by  wind  or  handling.— D.  S.  Marvin,  American  Garden,  11:  716. 

The  downward  or  spreading  propensity  is  natural  to  this  variety,  and  a  decided 
objection  to  it.— E.  S.  Carman.  Amer.  Gar.,  13:  447. 

One  grower  holds  it  up  with  sticks  and  slats.— Ibid,  687. 

A  general  failure  in  Michigan.  Occasional  bushes  do  well  in  sheltered  places 
when  protected  from  spring  frosts.— Ibid,  378.  (From  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.) 

The  largest,  finest  and  most  prolific  variety,  but  blooms  too  early  and  suckers 
badly.  The  suckers  brittle  and  easily  broken.— 111.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1890:  146. 

Claimed  by  the  originator  to  be  as  large  as  Cherry,  with  a  longer  bunch,  and 
producing  five  times  the  amount  of  berries  of  the  Cherry.  Had  measured  berries 
two  inches  in  circumference.— la.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1880:  414. 

John  Burrows  uprooted  his  plantation  of  Fays.— la.  Hort.  Soc.  Kept,  1892:  75. 

The  leading  favorite,  and  worthy  of  all  that  is  said  of  it.— Annual  Kept.  Ge- 
neva CN.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  1880:  283. 

Far  ahead  of  Cherry  on  light  soils,  the  latter  nearly  as  good  on  heavy  soils.— 
Ibid.  1891:  472. 

Especially  liable  to  attacks  of  the  Twig  Borer.— T.  T.  Lyon,  Mich.  Expt.  Sta. 
Bull.  118:20. 

Gloire  de  Sdblons. — Described  as  upright,  vigorous,  and  only 
moderately  productive.  Bunches  short.  Fruit  small,  white, 
striped  or  splashed  with  red.  Of  interest  chiefly  on  this  account. 

Gloucester  Bed.  Probably  an  English  variety  which  may  never 
have  been  introduced  in  the  United  States.  Described  in  Tilton's 
Journal  of  Horticulture  for  1871,  p.  188. 

Gondoin  Red  (Red  Provence).— Said  to  have  been  named  from 
the  town  in  France  where  it  originated.  Described  as  of  good 
size,  red,  later  than  Red  Dutch.  By  some  this  is  regarded  as  the 
same  as  Red  Provence,  and  is  apparently  mentioned  by  Prince 
under  this  name  in  the  Horticulturist,  Vol.  2,  p.  266.  In  the 
Gardener's  Monthly  for  1876,  p.  209,  the  editor,  Thomas  Meehan, 
mentions  Raby  Castle,  May's  Victoria,  and  Imperiale  Rouge  as 
synonyms. 

Imperial  Yellow  (Imperial  Jaune,  White  Imperial).— Said  to  be 
practically  identical  with  White  Grape. 

Knight  Early  Red.— A.  variety  originated  by  Thomas  Andrew 
Knight,  of  England. 

Knight  Large  Red.—  Another  of  Mr.  Knight's  seedlings.  De- 
scribed as  large,  bright  red,  with  large  bunches,  and  'very  pro- 
ductive. 

Knight  Sweet  Red. — Described  as  large,  dark  red,  bunch  long, 
tapering.  Similar  in  quality  to  the  Red  Dutch  but  less  acid.  A 
vigorous,  upright  grower,  with  thick,  dark  green  leaves. 


RED   AND     WHITE    CURRANTS  383 

La  Hative  (Hative  de  Bertin,  La  Fertile) . — A  French  variety 
mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  failure.  Described  as  vigorous  and 
productive,  resembling  the  Cherry  in  fruit  and  cluster,  but 
smaller  and  not  quite  so  acid.  In  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1876, 
p.  209,  the  editor,  Thomas  Meehan,  gives  this  as  a  synonym  of 
Eed  Dutch. 

Lakewood. — A  new  red  variety  on  trial  in  Michigan.  Said  to  be 
a  good  grower,  but  not  productive. — Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  20. 

London  M arTcet.—  Mentioned  as  an  English  variety  imported  in 
1878.  Described  as  having  racemes  of  moderate  length,  thickly 
set  with  large,  light  crimson  berries,  somewhat  resembling  Fay, 
though  more  delicate  in  texture,  with  seeds  large  and  numerous. 
Firm,  transparent,  rather  sharp  acid. — U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Kept. 
1891:395. 

London  Eed  (Short -Bunched  Red). — Described  as  vigorous, 
upright,  and  very  productive.  Clusters  with  a  very  short  stem. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in  quality  and  color.— 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95:418. 

Long-Bunched  Holland  (Long-Bunched  Red[?],  Red  Dutch 
Long- Bunched  [?]) . — A  popular  variety  in  many  parts  of  the  West. 
Described  as  an  upright  grower,  the  young  wood  reddish  in  color ; 
productive.  Bunches  long  and  full  of  fruit;  ripening  late,  of 
moderate  size  and  fair  quality,  somewhat  resembling  Victoria. 
Retains  its  foliage  and  fruit  later  in  the  season  than  most  varieties. 

Magnum  Bonum. — Mentioned  as  a  red  variety,  not  particularly 
distinct.— Horticulturist,  1854 : 11. 

Marvin  Seedling . — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station  from  D.  S.  Marvin,  of  Watertown,  N.  Y.  Described  as  a 
moderately  vigorous,  upright  grower.  Bunches  of  medium  length. 
Fruit  mild,  larger  than  the  White  Grape,  being  one  of  the  largest 
of  the  white  currants.  Resembles  White  Grape  in  color,  but  more 
acid.  Controlled  by  J.  C.  Vaughan,  of  Chicago. — N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  95 :  427. 

Mills  No.  20.— On  trial  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Received  from  Charles  Mills,  of  Fairmount,  N.  Y.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous,  somewhat  spreading.  Bunches  of  medium 
length.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  rather  uniform,  color  fine,  later 
than  Cherry  and  darker  than  Prince  Albert,  less  acid  than  Red 
Dutch.  Said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  Versaillaise  crossed  by  Red 
Dutch.— N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95:421. 

Mills  No.  22.— Qi  the  same  origin  and  parentage  as  the  above. 
Described  as  moderately  vigorous,  somewhat  spreading.  Fruit  of 
good  quality,  later  than  Fay,  variable  in  size,  less  acid  than  Red 
Dutch.— Ibid. 


384  BUSH-FRUITS 

Mills  No.  28. — Of  the  same  origin  and  parentage  as  the  pre- 
ceding. Clusters  of  good  size.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  dark  red, 
mild  flavor.— Ibid. 

Mills  No.  %9. — Same  origin  and  parentage.  Described  as  vig- 
orous and  upright,  with  short  clusters.  Fruit  variable,  though 
averaging  large,  somewhat  darker,  though  better  in  color  than  No. 
22  ;  of  good  flavor  and  excellent  quality.— Ibid. 

North  Star. — An  accidental  seedling,  introduced  by  the  Jewell 
Nursery  Company  of  Lake  City,  Minn.  Described  as  vigorous, 
upright,  or  somewhat  spreading.  Bunches  of  medium  length. 
Fruit  of  good  color,  much  like  Red  Dutch,  variable  in  size,  com- 
paratively mild  acid.  Reports  as  to  its  value  vary  much. 

Palluau  (Fertile  de  Palluau). — Mentioned  by  Downing  and 
Fuller  as  a  French  variety  of  vigorous,  upright  growth,  and  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  large,  bright  red,  resembling  Red  Dutch.  Thomas 
Meehan*  gives  this  as  a  synonym  of  Red  Dutch. 

Palmer  Sweet  E&d. — Mentioned  in  the  Horticulturist  for  1824, 
p.  161,  as  a  fine,  long-bunched,  large-berried  variety  of  vigorous 
growth,  and  productive. 

Pitmaston  Sweet  Bed. — Mentioned  in  the  same  place  as  the 
sweetest  of  all  red  currants,  having  short  bunches,  and  small 
fruit.  Said  to  have  been  raised  by  Mr.  Williams,  of  Pitmaston. 

Pomona. — An  Indiana  variety,  introduced  by  Albertson  & 
Hobbs,  of  Bridgeport,  Indiana.  Claimed  to  be  more  prolific, 
with  fewer  seeds,  and  sweeter  than  any  other  currant  ;  clear, 
bright  red,  about  the  size  of  Victoria,  easily  picked,  and  hangs 
a  long  time  on  the  bushes. 

Prince  Albert.—  Described  as  vigorous,  even  more  upright  than 
Red  Dutch,  and  a  very  heavy  yielder,  though  a  weak  grower  when 
young.  Bunches  short  to  medium.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  rather 
pale  red,  of  poor  quality,  ripening  late.  One  of  the  most  profit- 
able varieties,  and  popular  at  canneries.  Said  to  retain  its  foliage 
late  like  the  Long-Bunched  Holland. 

Red  Cross.— Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Station  from 
Jacob  Moore,  of  Attica,  N.  Y.,  who  states  that  it  is  a  cross  be- 
tween Cherry  and  White  Grape.  Described  as  vigorous  and  up- 
right. Bunches  of  medium  length.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  of 
good  color,  somewhat  lighter  than  Cherry,  milder,  though  more 
acid  than  White  Grape.  Season  somewhat  later  than  Cherry. 
Controlled  by  the  Green  Nursery  Company  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Eed  Dutch  (Large -Bunched  Red,  Long -Bunched  Red,  Morgan's 
Red,  Groseillier  Rouge  a  Grosse  Fruit).— Meehan*  also  gives  the 


*Gar.  Month.  1876:  209. 


RED    AND    WHITE   CURRANTS  385 

following  list  as  synonyms  of  this  variety:  Fertile,  Fertile 
d'Angleterre,  Fertile  de  Palluau,  Fertile  de  Bertin,  La  Hative, 
Hative  de  Bertin,  Bertin  No.  9,  Belle  de  St.  Gilles,  Chenonceaux, 
Grosse  Rouge  de  Boulogne,  Queen  Victoria,  and  Bed  Grape.  One 
of  the  oldest  and  best  known  varieties.  It  is  still  retained  by 
some  growers  in  the  West,  and  perhaps  elsewhere,  as  more  valu- 
able than  any  of  its  younger  competitors.  A  strong  grower, 
rather  tall,  upright,  with  comparatively  slender  shoots,  productive. 
Fruit  of  fine  color  and  sprightly  flavor,  but  not  large. 

Bed  Grape. — Mentioned  by  Fuller  as  having  foliage  not  shining, 
as  with  the  Red  Dutch. 

Ruby. — Raised  by  Jacob  Moore,  the  originator  of  the  Brighton 
Grape,  from  seed  of  the  Cherry  believed  to  have  been  crossed  by 
White  Grape.  Described  as  not  equal  to  Versaillaise  or  Cherry  in 
size,  but  with  larger  bunches  and  better  fruit;  productive.  Pro- 
fessor Troop,  of  Indiana,  reports  it  as  decidedly  the  best  currant 
they  have. 

Select. — Said  by  T.  T.  Lyon  to  lack  in  vigor  and  productive- 
ness.—Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:  20. 

Short- Bunched  Red. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  much  like  Red 
Dutch,  with  shorter  bunches. 

Stewart  ('s  Seedling). — A  Minnesota  variety,  mentioned  as  not 
having  received  its  share  of  notice.  Said  to  be  the  handsomest  in 
bush  and  berry  of  any  variety  grown  in  that  state.  A  vigorous, 
upright  grower,  prolific  and  hardy.  Fruit  somewhat  hidden  by  the 
leaves,  large,  borne  in  good  sized  bunches,  remaining  a  long  time 
after  ripening  without  injury.— Ann.  Rept.  Minn.  Exp.  Sta. 
1888:235. 

Storrs  fy  Harrison  Co.'s  No.  1. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station  for  trial  from  Storrs  &  Harrison  Company. 
Described  as  moderately  vigorous,  upright.  Bunches  of  medium 
size.  Fruit  small  to  medium,  much  like  Red  Dutch  in  color,  but 
less  acid.— Bull.  95:422. 

Striped  Fruited  (Silver  Striped). — An  old  German  variety. 
Mentioned  by  Downing  and  Fuller  as  being  distinctly  striped,  but 
small,  a  poor  bearer,  and  of  no  value  except  as  a  curiosity. 

Transparent  (Transparent  White,  Transparent  Blanc). — A 
French  variety  mentioned  by  Downing  and  Fuller.  Said  to  be  a 
seedling  of  the  White  Grape,  and  to  resemble  that  variety  so 
closely  as  to  be  practically  identical. 

Versaillaise  (La)  (Versailles,  Macrocarpa,  Fertile  d'Angers, 
La  Caucase,  Caucasian).  Originated  by  M.  Bertin,  of  Versailles, 
from  seed  of  the  Cherry  currant,  and  so  similar  to  that  variety 
that  it  has  frequently  been  confounded  with  it.  As  grown  at  the 


386  B  USE -PR  UIT8 

Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  it  is  less  productive  than  the 
Cherry,  with  rather  darker  fruit,  though  generally  regarded  as 
more  productive.  The  tendency  of  the  shoots  to  "go  blind,"  that 
is,  to  lack  either  the  terminal  buds  or  those  near  the  tip,  is  said  to 
be  less  common  with  this  variety  than  with  the  Cherry.  This  is 
one  of  the  best  known  market  currants,  and  very  generally  prized. 
E.  P.  Powell  says*  that  the  true  Versaillaise  is  not  unlike  Fay  in 
size  and  color,  a  rather  more  upright  grower,  with  a  long,  fine 
stem,  enormously  productive.  Flavor  almost  like  Fay. 

Victoria  (May's  Victoria,  Goliath,  Raby  Castle,  Red  Grape, 
Houghton  Castle,  Wilmot's  Red  Grape).  Said  to  have  been  known 
in  Hexham  and  New  Castle  as  the  Houghton  Castle  currant.  Sent 
from  there  to  Raby  Castle,  whence  it  was  procured  by  Mr.  May,  of 
Learning  Lane,  and  advertised  by  him  as  May's  Victoria.  One  of 
the  most  reliable  red  currants  known.  Described  as  a  very  strong 
grower,  upright,  very  productive.  Professor  Beach  sayst:  "The 
buds  have  a  peculiar  grayish  color,  quite  characteristic  of  this 
variety,  as  is  also  the  cluster  of  well  formed  buds  at  the  end  of 
the  shoot."  Foliage  rather  pale  green.  Fruit  bright  red,  medium 
or  above  in  size,  mildly  acid,  late  in  coloring,  but  will  keep  on 
the  bushes  in  good  condition  later  than  either  Cherry  or  Red 
Dutch.  Less  liable  to  attacks  of  the  currant  borer  than  most  other 
sorts.  This  variety,  the  Long- Bunched  Holland  and  Prince  Albert 
seem  to  belong  to  a  somewhat  distinct  class,  being  able  to  retain 
their  leaves  and  fruit  better  than  most  sorts. 

Warner's  Bed  Grape,  Warrior's  Grape, — English  varieties  men- 
tioned in  Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  Vol.  9,  p.  188.  Per- 
haps synonyms  of  other  sorts. 

White  Dutch  (White  Crystal,  White  Clinton,  Reeves'  White, 
Morgan's  White,  White  Antwerp,  White  Leghorn,  Clarke's  Sweet, 
White  Holland,  White  Pearl).  Very  similar  to  Red  Dutch  in 
habit.  Bush  vigorous,  upright  and  productive.  Fruit  variable  in 
size,  translucent,  slightly  darker  than  White  Grape,  mildly  acid ; 
quality  excellent,  very  rich  and  sweet.  A  well  known  old  sort. 

White  Grape  (White  Antwerp,  Imperial  White  [?],  Imperial 
Blanc). — Probably  the  best  known  and  finest  white  currant  grown. 
Described  as  moderately  vigorous,  rather  slender,  somewhat 
spreading,  productive.  Bunches  long,  berries  quite  uniformly 
large,  translucent,  whitish,  -attractive,  mild  in  flavor  and  of  fine 
quality.  E.  P.  Powell  says*  that  it  was  long  before  he  secured 
the  genuine  White  Grape.  This  he  considers  to  be  absolutely  the 


*Gar.  and  Forest  7:  188. 

tGeneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.,  95:  424. 


RED    AND    WHITE    CURRANTS  387 

finest  white  currant  grown.  The  fruit  is  large,  handsome,  clear  in 
color,  entirely  unlike  the  creamy  color  of  the  more  common  so- 
called  white  currants. 

White  Imperial. — A  variety  strongly  recommended  by  S.  D. 
Willard,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.  Said  to  be  by  far  the  sweetest  currant 
known,  the  difference  in  that  respect  being  like  that  of  the  sweet 
and  sour  cherry.  Clusters  and  berries  of  good  size. 

White  Pearl. — Mentioned  and  described,  in  Hovey's  Magazine, 
Vol.  17,  p.  217,  as  raised  by  Remi  Wilquet  near  Brussels.  Per- 
haps not  introduced  in  America.  Fuller  gives  this  name  as  a 
synonym  of  White  Dutch. 

White  Provence. — Mentioned  by  Downing,  Prince,  and  Fuller. 
Said  to  be  a  strong,  upright  variety,  with  leaves  more  or  less 
silvered  at  the  edge.  Fruit  large,  yellowish  white.  Not  so  pro- 
ductive as  White  Grape,  though  one  of  the  most  vigorous  white 
varieties  grown.  • 

White  Versaillaise. — Said  to  have  been  raisen  by  M.  Bertin,  of 
Versailles,  France.  At  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  it 
is  vigorous,  upright,  easily  picked.  Bunches  long  ;  berries  large, 
slightly  darker  than  White  Grape. 

Wilder.—  A  seedling  of  the  Versaillaise  which  originated  about 
twenty  years  ago  with  E.  Y.  Teas,  of  Irvington,  Ind.,  who  named 
and  disseminated  it  to  a  limited  extent.  Later  the  stock  was  sold 
to  S.  D.  Willard,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  who  catalogued  it  as  "Presi- 
dent Wilder."  Said  by  him  to  be  the  most  productive  currant 
which  he  has  tried.  Described  as  vigorous,  upright.  Fruit  large, 
but  not  so  uniform  as  Fay,  of  fine  color,  lighter  than  Fay,  remain- 
ing bright  and  attractive  until  very  late  in  the  season.  Flavor 
mild,  quality  good.  Very  promising,  giving  evidence  of  coming 
to  be  a  standard  (Fig.  68). 

Many  of  the  varieties  mentioned  in  this  list  doubt- 
Jess  should  be  placed  as  synonyms.  Others  may  have 
only  received  mention  or  have  been  little  known  in 
the  United  States.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  in- 
clude European  varieties  unless  they  are  known  to 
have  received  attention  here.  The  following  were 
mentioned  as  English  varieties  in  Tilton's  Journal 
of  Horticulture,  Vol.  9,  p.  220:  Bang  Down,  Lander's 
New  Red,  Great  Eastern,  and  Garibaldi. 


388 


BUSH-FRUITS 


b'ig.  68.     Wilder.    ("Natural  size,  medium  cluster. ) 


EUROPEAN     BLACK    CURRANTS 

(Eibes   nigrum) 

Baldwin. — Described  as  moderately  vigorous  and  productive. 
Fruit  variable,  averaging  medium.  Flavor  milder  than  that  of  the 
Common  Black,  ripening  several  days  later. 

Bang  Up. — Mentioned  by  Downing  as  a  variety  similar,  and  in 
no  way  superior,  to  the  Black  English. 

Black  Grape  (Ogden's  Black  Grape) . — A  vigorous  grower,  but 
unproductive.  Fruit  variable,  strong  flavored. 

Black  Naples. — One  of  the  best  known  English  sorts.  Vigor- 
ous, moderately  productive.  Fruit  variable,  strong  flavored. 
Downing  says  it  blooms  earlier  than  the  Common  Black,  but 
ripens  later  (Fig.  69). 


BLACK    CURRANTS 


389 


Brown- Fruited  (Green -Fruited,  Russian  Green). — An  English 
variety  having  the  wood,  foliage  and  growth  of  the  Common 
Black,  with  greenish  brown  fruit  when  ripe.  Berries  dry,  hard, 
rank  flavored  and  worthless. 

Champion. — Described  as  of  dwarf,  upright  habit,  fairly  produc- 


tive. Fruit  of  large  size,  borne  in  short  clusters,  mild  flavored, 
and  more  desirable  than  the  Common  Black. 

Common  Black  (Black  English). — Described  as  vigorous  and 
productive,  of  spreading  habit.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  the  clus- 
ters ripening  evenly.  Pulp  rather  acid  and  strong  flavored. 

Dwarf  Rlack. — Mentioned  in  the  Horticulturist  for  1854,  p.  162, 
as  of  more  dwarf  habit  than  the  other  blacks,  with  bunch  and 
berry  equal  to  Black  Naples. 

Lee  (Lee's  Prolific).  — Bush  dwarfish,  moderately  vigorous,  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  rather  brighter  in  color  than  most  kinds,  but  not 
much  of  an  improvement,  if  any,  over  the  Black  Naples. 

Prince  of  Wales. — Origin  Ontario.     Bush  vigorous  and  produc- 


390  BUSH-FRUITS 

tive,  giving  the  highest  yield  of  all  black  currants  at  Geneva, 
N.  Y.  Fruit  variable  in  size,  milder  in  flavor  than  the  Common 
Black,  nearly  sweet  when  fully  ripe. 

Saunders.  —Originated  by  William  Saunders,  of  Ontario.  De- 
scribed as  vigorous  and  productive.  Variable  in  size,  rather  mild. 
Fairly  well  disseminated  and  promising  in  Canada.  Another 
variety  originated  by  Professor  Saunders,  and  received  at  the 
Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Station  as  Saunders's  No.  2,  is  reported  to 
have  little  value. 

t 
THE  GOLDEN  OR  BUFFALO  CURRANT 

(Ribes   aureum) 

Crandall. — The  best  known  variety  of  this  species  at  the  present 
time,  although  the  plants  sent  out  under  that  name  differ  so  much 
that  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  only  seedlings.  Like  the 
forms  found  in  unnumbered  door-yards,  and  every  where  known 
as  the  Flowering  Currant,  this  is  a  tall,  vigorous,  upright  bush. 
Although  apparently  productive,  the  average  yield  per  bush  at  the 
Geneva  (N.  Y. )  Experiment  Station  for  three  years  was  less  than 
one  pound.  The  fruit  has  a  tough  skin  and  such  a  pecuiiar  flavor 
that  it  is  little  prized. 

Deseret. — Another  named  variety  of  this  species.  Mentioned  by 
Fuller,  who  says  it  is  highly  valued  by  the  Mormons  of  Salt  Lake 
City,  whence  he  received  it. 

Golden. — Apparently  a  variety  of  the  western  representative  of 
this  species,  Ribes  tenuiflorum,  since  it  is  described  by  Fuller  as 
"large,  round,  deep  golden  yellow,  very  acid,  and  slightly  bitter. 
Flowers  yellow.  Of  no  value  for  its  fruit,  but  might  be  improved. 
Native  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  and  a  variety  of  Ribes  aureum." 

Jetty. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  R.  H.  Blair  &  Company,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  being  selected 
plants  of  this  species  obtained  in  western  Kansas.  Found  to  be  of 
larger  size  and  more  productive  than  Crandall. 

This  species  has  often  been  known  under  the  name  Missouri 
Currant.  It  has  also  appeared  at  times  under  other  names,  such 
as  Utah,  Utah  Hybrid,  etc. 

THE   AMERICAN   BLACK   CURRANT 
(Ribes  Americanum) 

This  species  is  almost  unknown  in  cultivation,  yet  Fuller  men- 
tions one  variety  under  the  name  Sweet-fruited  Missouri,  which 
he  describes  as  large,  black,  roundish  ovoid.  Bunches  small, 


VARIETIES    TO   PLANT  391 

containing  few  berries  of  sweet,  musky  flavor.  He  says  that  it  is 
a  slight  improvement  upon  the  common  wild  black  currant,  which 
may  be  fonnd  in  almost  any  low,  moist  woods. 


RECOMMENDED   VARIETIES 

For  a  general -purpose  currant,  the  Victoria  is  prob- 
ably most  popular.  The  Red  Dutch  is  too  small, 
but  succeeds  well  on  the  Plains.  Cherry  and  Versailles 
are  standard  varieties  for  large  size.  Fay  is  to  be 
recommended  when  given  extra  good  care.  Prince  Al- 
bert is  very  productive,  and  excellent  for  jelly  and  can- 
ning; very  sour.  Wilder  is  one  of  the  most  promising 
recent  varieties.  White  currants  are  little  grown  for 
market.  For  dessert  use,  White  Imperial  is  best,  but 
White  Grape  is  the  most  popular  variety. 

Beach  makes  the  following  summary  of  varieties  of 
currants :  * 

"The  yields  of  the  red  currants  at  this  station  that 
are  in  full  bearing  may  be  compared  by  consulting  the 
following  table,  which  shows  the  average  yield  per 
plant  in  pounds  for  the  last  three  seasons  combined: 

Average  yield 
Name  per  plant 

Cherry 5.15 

Fay 4.70 

Gloire  des  Sablons 2.07 

London  Eed 7.14 

Prince  Albert 8.86 

Victoria 6.25 

"It  appears  from  this  table  that  for  this  locality,  at 

*Bull.  25,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 


392  BUSH-FRUITS 

least,  the  Cherry  is  superior  to  Fay  in  productiveness, 
and  it  still  holds  its  place  as  one  of  the  most  desirable 
of  the  large -fruited  red  currants  for  the  commercial 
grower.  Fay  yields  the  longer  bunches,  more  uniformly 
large  fruit,  and  its  fruit  is  more  easily  picked  than 
Cherry,  but  it  does  not  make  as  satisfactory  a  bush  nor 
give  as  satisfactory  a  yield.  Both  these  varieties  need 
to  be  marketed  comparatively  early.  They  will  not 
remain  on  the  bushes  in  good  condition  for  shipping  as 
late  as  will  Victoria,  Prince  Albert  or  Wilder.  As  to 
the  comparative  value  of  different  varieties  for  jam  and 
jelly,  Curtice  Brothers  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  who 
operate  a  very  extensive  establishment  for  preserving 
and  canning  fruits,  write  us  that  Cherry  currant  is 
preferred  for  jam  because  it  is  thin-skinned  and  juicy; 
but  not  so  for  jelly  making,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
necessary  to  evaporate  away  more  of  its  juice  to  pro- 
duce jelly  than  it  is  with  some  other  varieties.  The 
currant  that  is  preferable,  they  say,  is  the  largest  one 
that  has  a  thin  skin  and  is  filled  with  rich  juice  or  pulp, 
and  they  believe  this  is  true  of  Fay  and  Prince  Albert 
above  other  varieties.  London  Red,  also  called  Short 
Bunched  Red,  is  objectionable,  on  account  of  its 
short  clusters  and  fruit  close  to  the  wood,  but  has  the 
merit  of  being  one  of  the  most  productive  of  the  red 
kinds  that  have  been  tested  here.  It  ripens  about  with 
Red  Dutch.  The  Red  Dutch  was  not  included  in  the 
above  list,  because  the  bushes  under  test  were  unsatis- 
factory. It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  mid -season,  me- 
dium-sized red  currants.  Prince  Albert  and  Victoria 
are  both  valued  as  productive  late  currants.  The 


VARIETY    SUMMARY  393 

former,  when  well  grown,  will  pass  for  a  large  currant. 
The  fruit  is  paler  and  less  attractive  than  Cherry. 
Victoria  is  a  good  late  currant,  but  it  ranks  only  me- 
dium in  size.  Prince  Albert  was  the  most  productive 
during  the  last  three  years  of  all  the  kinds  thus  far 
tested,  having  an  average  yield  during  the  last  three 
years  of  8.86  pounds  per  bush.  White  Dutch  was  the 
most  productive  of  the  white,  and  Prince  of  Wales  the 
most  productive  of  the  black  kinds  tested.  Individual 
varieties  in  the  different  classes  vary  much  in  produc- 
tiveness, but  the  most  productive  black  currants  do  not 
equal  in  yield  the  most  productive  red  or  white  kinds. 
It  is  estimated  that  on  account  of  their  being  less  pro- 
ductive, one  would  need  to  realize  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  cents  per  pound  more  for  the  black  as  a  class, 
than  for  the  red  or  white  currants." 


CHAPTER  XT 

VARIETIES    OF    GOOSEBERRIES 

The  gooseberries  cultivated  for  fruit  nearly  all 
belong  to  two  closely  related  species,  Ribes  grossularia 
of  Europe  and  Ribes  oxyacanthoides  of  North  America. 
These  species  are  so  much  alike  that  if  we  were  accus- 
tomed to  take  a  broader  view  of  the  plants  of  the  world 
and  the  influences  which  affect  them,  we  might  easily 
consider  them  a  single  species,  and  their  differences  due 
to  climate  and  location  rather  than  to  inherent  charac- 
teristics. As  elsewhere  stated,  the  horticultural  differ- 
ences are  more  marked  than  the  purely  botanical  dif- 
ferences. The  European  species  has  been  long  in  cul- 
tivation and  its  fruit  greatly  improved,  at  least  in  size 
and  appearance,  while  the  American,  being  young  in 
cultivation,  is  far  behind  in  size,  though  superior  in 
quality.  The  English  varieties  all  have  a  thick,  rough 
skin,  that  detracts  from  their  value,  and  they  are  even 
more  sour  than  our  own.  The  susceptibility  of  Eng- 
lish varieties  to  mildew,  which  has  been  the  chief 
cause  of  their  failure  in  the  United  States,  is  really 
the  most  prominent  distinction  between  the  two  spe- 
cies at  the  present  time.  The  European  type  is  essen- 
tially a  stocky  and  close  grower  (Fig.  70),  whereas 
the  American  type  is  a  slender  and  open  grower 
(Fig.  71). 

(394) 


Fig.  70.     Industry,  the  European  type. 


Fig.  71.    Pale  Red,  the  American  type. 


396  BUSH-FRUITS 

HISTORY    AND    FUTURE 

Like  the  currant,  the  gooseberry  appears  not  to  have 
been  known  to  the  ancients,  and  it  is  uncertain  when 
it  first  began  to  receive  garden  culture.  Although  long 
common  among  the  hedges  and  woods  of  England,  it  is 
thought  by  most  authors  not  to  have  been  indigenous. 
It  is  reported,  as  first  mentioned  by  British  authors, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Geo.  W. 
Johnson*  states  that  Tusser,  in  his  "Five  Hundred 
Points  of  Good  Husbandry,"  published  during  1557, 
mentions  the  gooseberry  as  then  among  garden  fruits. 
Johnson's  edition  of  Gerarde's  Herbal,  published  in 
1636,  says:  " There  be  divers  sorts  of  the  gooseberries, 
some  greater,  others  lesse;  some  round,  others  long, 
and  some  of  a  red  color.  *  *  *  The  sorts  of  goose- 
berries are  these:  the  long  greene,  the  great  yellowish, 
the  blew,  the  great  round  red,  the  long  red,  and  the 
prickly  gooseberry."  The  further  statement  is  made 
that  "These  plants  doe  grow  in  London  gardens  and 
elsewhere  in  great  abundance."  Under  the  heading  of 
names,  the  statement  is  that  "this  shrub  hath  no  name 
among  old  Writers,  who  as  we  deeme  knew  it  not,  or  else 
esteemed  it-  not;  the  later  writers  call  it  in  Latine, 
Grossularia,  and  oftentimes  of  the  berries,  Uva  Crispa, 
Uva  spina,  TTva  spinella,  and  Uva  Crispina;  in  French, 
Groiselles;  in  English,  Gooseberry,  Gooseberry  bush 
and  Fea- berry  bush  in  Cheshire,  my  native  country." 
This  latter  name  was  also  known  in  other  parts  of  Eng- 
land, being  abbreviated  into  Feabes  or  Fapes  in  some 

*The  Cucumber  and  Gooseberry,  p.  103. 


HISTORY   OF    THE    GOOSEBERRY  397 

localities.  Most  authors  have  thought  that  the  name 
gooseberry  was  derived  from  the  fruit  having  been  first 
used  as  a  sauce  with  "green  goose."  Others  doubt  this. 
Geo.  W.  Johnson  says:*  "It  is  somewhat  unfortunate 
for  this  derivation  that  it  has  never  been  so  used.  It 
seems  to  me  more  probable  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
Dutch  name  Kruisbes,  or  Gruisbes.  Kruisbes,  I  be- 
lieve, was  derived  from  Kruis,  the  Cross,  and  Bes,  as 
Berry,  because  the  fruit  was  ready  for  use  just  after 
the  Festival  of  the  Invention  of  the  Holy  Cross;  just 
as  Kruis-haring,  in  Dutch,  is  a  herring  caught  after 
the  same  festival. "t 

Loudon  states t  that  the  first  marked  improvement 
in  size  was  made  by  the  Dutch.  But  its  present  re- 
markable development  has  been  brought  about  largely 
by  the  efforts  of  the  Lancashire  weavers.  The  pro- 
duction of  new  varieties,  and  the  increase  in  size,  has 
been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  annual  shows  or  "  goose- 
berry prize  meetings,"  at  which  liberal  prizes  are  offered 
for  the  largest  fruits.  The  results  of  these  are  pub- 
lished in  the  Gooseberry  Annual,  now  forming  an  ex- 
tensive set.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the 
largest  fruits  seldom  exceeded  10  dwts.  in  weight,  but 
in  recent  years  they  frequently  exceed  30  dwts.  Size 
is  not  the  only  quality  sought;  some  sorts  are  prized 
for  their  flavor,  some  for  their  beauty,  and  others  for 
their  productiveness.  There  is  also  a  wide  diversity 
in  the  season  of  ripening  among  different  sorts. 

*1.  c.  109. 

tAn  excellent  early  account  of  the  gooseberries,  with  colored  plates,  is  Thory's 
"Monographic  on  histoire  naturelle  du  genre  Groseillier,"  Paris,  1829.— L.  H.  B. 
t  Arboretum  et  Fruiticetum,  2:  973. 


398  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  history  of  the  American  gooseberry  in  cultiva- 
tion began  with  the  Houghton,  which  was  raised  from 
seed  of  a  wild  plant  by  Abel  Houghton,  of  Lynn, 
Mass.,  in  1833.  It  is  significant  that  the  most  reliable 
American  sort,  and  the  one  most  generally  cultivated  at 
the  present  time,  is  but  one  generation  removed  from 
this,  being  a  seedling  of  it. 

What  the  gooseberry  of  the  future  will  be  no  one 
can  say,  but  it  is  certain  to  be  largely  what  we 
make  it.  It  seems  safe  to  predict  that  it  will  not 
come  from  England.  Adaptability  to  climate,  with 
consequent  resistance  to  disease,  and  quality  of  the 
fruit,  are  in  favor  of  American  species.  We  have 
given  the  gooseberry  too  little  attention,  and  much  of 
that  has  been  on  the  wrong  basis  in  trying  to  develop 
seedlings  of  the  English  varieties.  The  gooseberry  as 
now  grown  is  objectionable  on  account  of  its  thorns. 
Yet  there  are  forms  comparatively  free  from  these 
uncomfortable  additions,  and  careful,  persuasive  treat- 
ment ought  to  induce  the  plants  to  relinquish  them 
altogether.  An  English  variety  has  been  recently 
introduced  which  is  said  to  be  thornless.  The  fruit 
of  our  species  is,  in  most  cases,  perfectly  smooth, 
while  that  of  the  English  gooseberry  is  roughly 
pubescent,  if  not  hairy  or  prickly  also. 

There  are  at  least  three  other  species,  Ribes  Cynos- 
bati,  R.  rotimdifolium  and  R.  gracile,  which  might  well 
receive  attention  in  the  way  of  selection  and  crossing, 
with  a  view  to  future  development.  All  have  good 
points  to  recommend  them.  The  fruit  of  Ribes  Cynos- 
bati  is  commonly  much  larger  than  that  of  R.  oxya- 


VARIETIES    OF    GOOSEBERRIES  399 

canthoides,  in  the  wild  state,  and  while  generally 
prickly,  is  often  smooth.  The  fruit  of  R.  rotundi- 
folium  is  small  but  agreeable,  and  the  plants  are  very 
productive,  while  R.  gracile  is  found  all  over  the  Plains, 
and  is,  therefore,  well  adapted  to  that  region. 

AMERICAN    GOOSEBERRIES 

Chiefly  Ribes  oxyacanthoides 

The  American  varieties  have  vigor,  hardiness,  ease 
of  propagation,  and  superior  quality  to  recommend 
them,  being  inferior  only  in  size,  which  must  steadily 
improve  as  selection  and  breeding  go  on. 

Apex.— A  variety  from  Oregon.  Said  to  be  a  native  seedling, 
though  somewhat  resembling  the  European  type  in  growth  and 
general  appearance.— T.  T.  Lyon,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:23. 

Champion. — Said  to  have  originated  with  O.  Dickinson,  Salem, 
Oregon.  Plant  upright,  prolific.  Fruit  large,  uniform,  transparent, 
with  tender  skin.  Said  to  endure  neglect  well,  and  to  be  an  excel- 
lent shipper.  Popular  in  Indiana. 

Downing. — The  great  American  gooseberry.  More  widely  grown 
and  more  generally  prized  than  any  other  known  sort.  Originated 
by  Charles  Downing  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  from  seed  of  the  Hough- 
ton.  Pure  seedlings  of  this  variety  grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station,  while  not  generally  closely  resembling  the 
parent,  seem,  in  some  cases,  to  indicate  a  mixture  of  foreign  blood, 
so  that  Professor  Beach  is  led  to  consider  this  a  hybrid  between 
the  American  and  European  gooseberry.  Downing  describes  it  as 
upright,  vigorous  and  productive.  Fruit  somewhat  larger  than 
Houghton,  roundish  oval,  whitish  green,  with  the  rib-veins  dis- 
tinct. Skin  smooth  ;  flesh  rather  soft,  juicy,  very  good.  Excel- 
lent for  family  use.  It  has  seldom  mildewed  in  the  United  States, 
and  succeeds  over  a  wide  area.  Houghton  is  said  to  be  sometimes 
sold  for  this  variety  because  more  easily  propagated.  The  fruit 
must  be  picked  very  soon  after  reaching  full  size,  for  it  ripens 
quickly  and  becomes  too  soft  for  handling  or  shipment.  In  quality 
it  is  superior  to  the  European  varieties,  and  surpassed  by  few,  if 
any,  native  sorts. 


400  B  USH-FR  UITS 

Excelsior. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station 
from  J.  H.  Haynes,  of  Delphi,  Indiana,  with  whom  it  originated. 
A  strong  grower  ;  fruit  light  green,  roundish,  smooth. 

Hobbs  Seedling.— A  variety  mentioned  by  Downing.  Thought 
to  have  been  originated  by  O.  J.  Hobbs,  of  Randolph,  Pa.  De- 
scribed as  light  pale  green,  roundish,  slightly  oval,  of  medium 
firmness,  a  good  keeper,  and  nearly  one -half  larger  than  Hough - 
ton. 

Houghton.— Grown  from  seed  in  1833  by  Abel  Houghton,  of 
Lynn,  Mass.,  who  planted  Crown  Bob,  White  Smith,  White  Rock 
and  Red  Champion,  with  a  native  plant  from  the  woods  in  the  cen- 
ter. One  plant  only  was  saved,  the  Houghton.  This  was  the  first 
American  variety  introduced,  and  is  still  one  of  the  best  flavored, 
most  hardy  and  productive,  though  too  small.  It  is  generally  re- 
garded as  a  pure  native,  but  the  account  of  its  origin,  and  experi- 
ments made  at  Geneva,  N  Y. ,  by  growing  seedlings  from  two  of 
its  seedlings,  Smith  and  Downing,  indicate  that  it  is  a  hybrid  be- 
tween the  American  and  European  species.  The  bush  is  rather 
slender  and  drooping  in  habit.  The  fruit  small,  handsome,  dark 
red,  with  a  whitish  bloom,  thin  skinned,  smooth,  juicy,  sweet,  and 
of  excellent  quality. 

Hudson. — Raised  by  Joseph  H.  Ricketts,  and  said  to  be  of  fine 
quality,  larger  than  Downing,  free  from  mildew.  Its  style  of 
growth  and  freedom  from  mildew  led  him  to  think  it  was  an 
American  or  a  cross-bred  variety.  Foliage  thick  and  glossy,  but 
liable  to  drop  some  before  the  fruit  is  past.  Hard  to  propagate. — 
Gar.  Month.  1880:303. 

Jewett. — Received  at  the  United  States  Division  of  Pomology 
from  George  H.  Andrews,  Clarkson,  N.  Y.  A  chance  seedling 
found  in  a  pasture.  Described  as  large,  oblong,  whitish  green, 
changing  to  blotched  and  stippled  red.  Seeds  numerous,  large, 
light  brown.  Flesh  purplish.  Pulp  moderately  firm,  juicy,  sub- 
acid,  rich  ;  season  early. — Report  of  the  United  States  Pomologist 
1894:27. 

Orange  (Engle's  Yellow  ?).— Said  to  ripen  seven  to  ten  days 
earlier  than  other  sorts.  Described  as  a  strong  grower  on  almost 
any  soil,  but  needs  heavy  pruning.  A  good  bearer.  Fruit  about 
the  size  of  Houghton,  rich  golden  yellow,  fine  flavored  and  very 
sweet. 

Pale  Red  (American  Red,  American  Seedling,  Robert's  Sweet- 
water,  Ohio  Seedling,  Dutch  Joe,  Ohio  Prolific,  St.  Clair  [Ameri- 
can] Cluster.) — A  variety  of  unknown  origin  which  has  long  been 
in  cultivation.  Frequently  known  as  Cluster  or  American  Cluster. 
It  appears  to  be  of  pure  Ribes  oxyacanthoides  parentage.  The 
bush  is  a  strong  grower,  with  slender  wood,  very  productive. 


AMERICAN    GOOSEBERRIES  401 

Fruit  small  or  medium,  darker  in  color  than  Houghton,   tender, 
sweet  and  good.     One  of  the  oldest  cultivated  varieties. 

Pearl. — Originated  with  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  Lon- 
don, Ont.,  who  gives  its  parentage  as  Downing  crossed  with  an 
English  variety  known  as  Aston 's  Seedling.  This  latter  name, 
however,  appears  to  be  a  synonym  of  Red  Warrington.  The 
variety  resembles  Downing  so  closely,  both  in  bush  and  fruit,  as 
to  be  practically  indistinguishable,  although  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  it 
has  proved  less  productive. 

Red  Jacket.— A.  variety  originated  more  than  twenty  years  ago 
by  Professor  William  Saunders,  of  London,  Ont.  Named  and 
introduced  by  George  S.  Josselyn,  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  who  thinks 
that  it  was  a  seedling  of  Houghton  crossed  by  Red  Warrington, 
which  would  make  it  a  hybrid  between  Ribes  oxyacanthoides  and 
Ribes  Grossularia.  It  is  a  strong  grower  and  productive,  somewhat 
larger  and  a  better  shipper  than  the  Pearl,  though  not  quite  so 
good  a  cropper,  The  fruit  is  large,  roundish  or  elongated,  reddish 
green  shading  into  red,  smooth,  quite  transparent  when  ripe  ;  skin 
rather  tender.  Flesh  juicy,  rich,  fragrant,  of  good  quality. 

Smith.—  Originated  by  Dr.  Smith,  of  Windsor,  Vt.,  from  seed 
of  the  Houghton.  Professor  Beach,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  says*  that, 
like  that  variety,  it  shows  indications  of  being  a  hybrid  between 
the  American  and  European  species.  Seedlings  of  Smith  crossed 
with  Pale  Red,  which  is  thought  to  be  a  pure  American  variety, 
have  occasionally  shown  marked  European  characteristics,  while 
none  of  the  pure  seedlings  of  Pale  Red  have  ever  given  such 
indications .  It  is  described  as  a  vigorous  grower,  with  somewhat 
curving  canes  and  slender  branches.  Foliage  firmer  and  more 
leathery  than  that  of  Downing,  with  a  more  glossy  surface.  Fruit 
dull,  pale  green,  sometimes  spotted  with  red,  and  having  a  light 
bloom.  Skin  smooth,  thin.  Pulp  sweet  and  good. 

Strubler. — Seedlings  originated  by  Phil.  Strubler,  of  Naperville, 
111.,  have  been  sent  out  under  this  name,  with  different  numbers 
attached.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  seedlings  of  Downing  or  Smith. 
They  are  described  by  Professor  Beach,  in  Bull.  114  of  the  Geneva 
(N.  Y. )  Experiment  Station,  and  have  also  been  mentioned  in  re- 
ports of  the  United  States  Pomologist. 

Tree. — A  variety  mentioned  by  T.  T.  Lyon,  in  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bull.  118:23,  as  apparently  a  native.  Vigorous,  healthy,  with  red 
fruit. 

Victoria. — Mentioned  in  the  Gardener's  Monthly  for  1870,  p. 
156,  as  a  small,  smooth  variety.  Thorns  not  numerous,  but  sharp, 


*Bull.  114:19. 


402  BUSH-FRUITS 

inclined  to  bend  over.     This  description  would  seem  to  indicate 
an  American  variety. 

HYBRIDS   OR   UNCLASSED    VARIETIES 

Cedar  HilL—A.  variety  mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  U.  S. 
Pomologist  for  1891,  p.  394,  as  received  from  Dr.  A.  W.  Thornton, 
West  Ferndale,  Washington,  with  whom  it  originated.  Described 
as  a  large,  oval  berry,  with  long,  adhering  flower  parts,  and  a  few 
scattering  prickles.  Skin  thin.  Pulp  quite  rich.  Said  by  its 
originator  to  be  an  upright  grower,  of  good  size,  very  prolific,  as 
much  so  as  Champion  or  Houghton.  Perfectly  mildew  proof  in 
Washington.  The  clause  "with  long,  adherent  flower  parts,  and  a 
few  scattering  prickles"  would  seem  to  indicate  that  this  may  be  a 
seedling  of  some  western  species. 

Crystal. — Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y. )  Experiment  Station 
from  J.  M.  Ogle,  of  Puyallup,  Wash.  Professor  Beach  says*  that 
this  variety  appears  to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  European  goose- 
berry and  some  American  species,  possibly  Biles  Cynosbati,  its 
European  parentage  being  indicated  by  the  general  appearance 
and  character  of  the  fruit,  which  is  pubescent,  like  the  European 
varieties.  Its  canes,  however,  are  tall  and  slender,  and  the  leaves 
thin,  the  buds,  too,  being  shorter  than  those  of  Ribes  Grossularia. 
He  reports  it  as  the  most  productive  variety  on  their  grounds  dur- 
ing a  period  of  four  years,  but  hardly  desirable,  owing  to  its  dull 
green  color  and  poor  flavor.  The  fruit  is  slightly  larger  than 
Downing,  but  rather  soft  when  ripe. 

Hale  Golden. — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897,  p. 
646,  as  on  trial  at  the  Rural  grounds. 

Mountain. — A  variety  which  originated  with  the  Shakers,  of 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.  Bush  tall  and  productive,  with  slender,  sprawl- 
ing branches,  which  need  close  pruning.  Fruit  dull,  brownish 
purple,  somewhat  larger  than  Downing,  oblong,  smooth,  with  a 
thick  skin,  moderately  juicy  and  sweet.  Professor  S.  A.  Beach 
saysf  that  this  variety  is  of  special  interest,  as  being  the  only 
known  representative  of  Ribes  Cynosbati  which  has  found  its  way 
into  cultivation,  being  clearly  a  hybrid  between  this  and  a  Euro- 
pean species.  The  long,  slender,  solitary  spines,  the  tall  canes, 
sprawling  branches,  dull  brown  purplish  color  of  the  fruit,  and 
the  very  dark  green  pulp  are  like  Cynosbati,  as  are  also  the  beauti- 
ful brown  and  red  color  of  its  autumn  foliage  which  is  quite  unlike 
the  yellow  or  occasional  brown  tints  of  the  European  kinds.  The 

*Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  114:16. 
tGeneva  (N.  Y.)  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  114:18. 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES  403 

fruit  is  very  large  for  an  American  variety,  and  its  thick,  smooth 
skin  indicates  foreign  parentage,  the  fruit  of  Cynosbati  having  a 
thin  skin  usually  beset  with  prickles  The  glossy  upper  surface, 
and  somewhat  leathery  texture  of  the  foliage,  and  comparative 
short,  thick,  buds  are  also  inherited  from  the  European  parent, 
Cynosbati  having  slender  buds,  with  soft,  pubescent  leaves,  neither 
leathery  nor  glossy. 

Newell  Seedling. — A  variety  mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the 
Illinois  Horticulture  Society  for  1890,  p.  59,  as  on  exhibition  in  a 
preserving  solution.  Said  to  be  large,  of  fine  appearance,  hardy, 
and  free  from  mildew.  Nothing  is  given  which  would  indicate  its 
parentage. 

Oregon  Jumbo. — A  variety  offered  by  the  J.  T.  Lovett  Company, 
of  New  Jersey,  and  described  as  "monstrous,  and  excelling  all 
others.  Superb  in  appearance  and  flavor.  Vigorous,  productive, 
hardy,  and  reliable.  Fruit  smooth,  pale  green,  of  high  quality." 
This  description  does  not  make  clear  its  parentage. 

Stein. — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1897,  p.  646,  as  "a 
cross  between  Houghton  and  an  old  German  variety." 


ENGLISH     GOOSEBERRIES 

Eibes  Grossularia 

The  subjoined  list  includes  only  those  English  va- 
rieties which  are,  or  have  been,  most  prominently 
known  in  the  United  States,  following  chiefly  those 
which  are  mentioned  by  Professor  S.  A.  Beach,  of 
the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station,  in  his  Bull- 
etin No.  114,  as  most  promising.  Gooseberries,  and 
especially  the  English  varieties,  have  received  much 
attention  at  this  station.  The  opinions  of  Professor 
Beach  are,  therefore,  worthy  of  especial  considera- 
tion. Lindley's  "Guide  to  the  Orchard,"  published  in 
1830,  enumerates  nearly  one  thousand  varieties,  and 
many  more  have  been  produced  since  then.  Some  of 
these  have  found  their  way  across  the  water  and  have 
appeared  in  the  United  States,  usually  only  to  sue- 


404 


BUSH-FRUITS 


cumb  to  that  inveterate  enemy,  mildew,  and  pass  into 
oblivion.  To  attempt  to  describe  all  these  varieties 
would  be  as  futile  as  useless. 


Blucher. — Grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station, 
and  described  as  very  large,  dark  red,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong, 
nearly  smooth,*  with  thin  skin,  sweet,  of  very  good  flavor.  Bush 


l^Sff^ff    i 


Fig.  72.     Chautauqua  gooseberry 


a  strong   grower,   apparently  productive,   with  but  little  mildew. 
Worthy  of  trial. 

Chautauqua. — Introduced  by  Lewis  Roesch  of  Fredonia,  N.  Y., 
being  a  chance  seedling  found  in  a  garden  in  Dunkirk,  N.  Y. 
Said  to  be  a  vigorous  grower  and  generally  healthy,  though  some- 
times mildewing.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oblong,  smooth,  pale 
green,  of  best  quality.  A  promising  variety  for  home  use,  though 
somewhat  lacking  in  productiveness  (Fig.  72). 

*The  term  "smooth,"  as  used  in  describing  English  gooseberries,  should  be 
understood  to  mean  free  from  hairs,  for  the  skin  of  these  varieties  has  a 
roughness  to  the  touch  quite  different  from  that  of  the  American  varieties. 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES 


405 


Fig.  73.     Columbus  gooseberry. 

Columbus. — Introduced  by  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit 
large,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong,  white  or  greenish  yellow,  sweet, 
of  best  quality.  Possibly  the  same  as  Triumph  (Fig.  73). 

Crown  Bob. — A  variety  long  known  in  England  as  desirable 
either  for  home  use  or  market.  Bush  dwarfish,  but  vigorous  and 
productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round,  dark  red, 
nearly  smooth,  almost  sweet,  of  good  quality,  similar  to  Industry 
in  color,  but  somewhat  smaller  ;  quite  subject  to  mildew,  less 


406  BUSH-FRUITS 

vigorous  and    less   productive   than  Industry.      It  was  figured  in 
Volume  I  of  the  HorHculturist,  p.  449. 

Dominion.— Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion from  E.  C.  Pierson  of  Waterloo,  N.  Y.  Described  as  vigor- 
ous and  promising.  Fruit  large,  pale  greenish  white,  nearly 
transparent,  with  a  thin  skin  for  fruit  of  this  class,  sweet,  and 
of  good  quality. 

Excellent.—  Promising  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. A  strong  grower,  somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  round  and  nearly  smooth,  light  red,  sweet, 
very  good. 

Frontenac.—  Received  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Sta- 

*  tion  from  H.  S.  Anderson,  of  Union  Springs, 

•      N.  Y.     Said  to  be  a  strong  grower.    Fruit 

m  large,   oblong,   smooth,    pale   green,    sweet, 

good. 
i)^»|^^  Gracilla. — Mentioned  in  The  Rural  New- 

9 


Yorker,  1897,  p.  646,  as  a  promising  variety 
ish 


of  the  English  type  received  from  L.  H. 
Hoysradt,  Pine  Plains,  N.  Y.,  in  the  spring 
of  1895. 

Hedgehog  (Improved  Early).— A  vigorous 
grower,  productive,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  below  medium  size,  nearly 
round,  somewhat  hairy,  yellowish  green, 
sweet,  of  fair  quality. 

Huntsman.— Said  to  be  a  strong  grower, 

™.    7,^7^  and    apparently    productive,    comparatively 

free  from  mildew.     Fruit  medium  to  large, 
oblong,  smooth,  pale  green,  sweet,  good. 

Industry  (Whinham's  Industry) . — One  of  the  best  known  and 
generally  successful  European  varieties.  Vigorous,  productive, 
somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  varying 
from  pear  shape  to  roundish  oblong,  smooth,  or  with  very  few 
minute  prickles,  dark  red,  mild  subacid  or  sweet,  of  good  flavor. 
Said  to  be  very  hard  to  propagate  in  the  United  States.  George 
S.  Josselyn  says:*  "All  the  Industry  plants  I  have  ever  seen  were 
started  in  Europe."  This,  he  thinks,  is  a  strong  indication  that 
it  is  not  adapted  to  our  climate.  (Fig.  74.) 

Jolly  Angler. —  Vigorous,  and  apparently  productive.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  oblong  or  roundish  oblong,  smooth,  light  green, 
sweet,  good. 


*The  Rural  New-Yorker,  1896:575. 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES  407 

Keepsake. — A  strong  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  some- 
what subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  medium  or  above,  nearly  round, 
smooth,  greenish  white,  sweet  or  nearly  so,  very  good. 

Lady  Popham. — A  moderate  grower,  productive,  comparatively 
free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth,  yellow, 
very  sweet,  good.  A  good  variety  for  exhibition  purposes. 

Lancashire  Lad. — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round,  dark  red,  almost 
wine  color,  slightly  hairy,  of  good  quality,  subacid  or  nearly  sweet. 

Leveller. — A  moderate  grower,  mildewing  but  slightly,  and 
promising  to  be  productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong, 
smooth,  yellowish,  slightly  acid,  good. 

Lord  Beaconsfield. — A  good  grower,  promising  to  be  productive, 
somewhat  subject  to  mildew.  Fruit  below  medium  size,  nearly 
round,  green,  smooth,  sweet  and  good. 

Matchless.— A  strong  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  mil- 
dewing but  slightly.  Fruit  large,  oblong,  green,  slightly  hairy, 
sweet,  very  good. 

Portage.— A  variety  received  at  the  United  States  Division  of 
Pomology  from  A.  H.  House,  Mantua  Station,  Ohio.  Described  in 
the  report  for  1891,  p.  395.  Also  described,  and  illustrated  by  a 
colored  plate,  in  the  report  for  1894.  Said  to  be  a  chance  seedling 
found  in  1874.  Fruit  solitary,  evenly  distributed,  large  to  very 
large,  oblong  oval  ;  surface  moderately  smooth,  dull,  slightly 
downy,  with  an  occasional  prickle.  Color  yellowish  green,  with 
bronze  dots  near  stem,  and  a  long  suture  on  some  specimens. 
Flesh  translucent,  greenish,  quite  firm  ;  pulp  melting,  moderately 
juicy.  A  good  shipper.  Flavor  mild  subacid,  rich,  quality  good. 

Puyallup  (Puyallup  Mammoth). — The  original  bush  is  said  to 
have  been  dug  in  1881,  at  an  old  Indian  camp  on  the  bank  of  the 
Puyallup  River,  one  mile  below  the  town  of  that  name,  by  W.  M. 
Lee  and  his  wife,  of  Tacoma,  Wash.  Introduced  by  J.  M.  Ogle,  in 
1887.  Said  to  be  a  fairly  strong  grower,  rather  late  in  ripening. 
Fruit  large,  pale  green,  smooth,  sweet,  of  good  quality.  Men- 
tioned in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Pomologist  for  1891,  p.  395,  as 
apparently  identical  with  Triumph,  but  Prefessor  Beach  considers 
this  an  error. 

Queen  of  the  Whites.— A.  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  nearly  round,  smooth,  pale  yellow- 
ish green,  sweet,  good. 

Red  Champagne.— A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from 
mildew.  Fruit  small  to  medium,  nearly  round,  slightly  hairy, 
dark  red,  sweet,  and  good.  This  variety  was  recommended  by  the 
American  Pomological  Society  in  1850. 


408  BUSH-FRUITS 

Red  Jacket. — An  English  variety,  entirely  distinct  from  the 
American  Red  Jacket.  Not  a  strong  'grower,  but  promising  to  be 
productive  and  comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  large  to 
very  large,  and  often  narrowed  toward  the  stem. 

Red  Warrington  (Aston  Seedling). — A  strong  grower,  compara- 
tively free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  delicate 
pale  red,  hairy,  sweet,  of  best  quality.  Recommended  by  the 
American  Pomological  Society  in  1850.  Also  mentioned  in  the 
Horticulturist,  Vol.  II,  p.  341,  as  the  best  kind,  both  in  Canada  and 
in  England.  Said  to  ripen  late  and  to  hang  long  on  the  bushes 
without  injury. 

Smiling  Beauty. — A  good  grower.  Fruit  medium  to  large, 
nearly  round,  greenish  yellow,  sweet,  of  best  quality. 

Spineless.  Recently  introduced  in  the  United  States,  by  C. 
H.  Joosten,  of  New  York  City.  It  is  figured  in  the  Gardener's 
Chronicle  for  July  27,  1895,  which  says  :  "They  are  spineless 
varieties  obtained  from  seed.  The  first  spineless  gooseberry, 
according  to  the  Revue  Horticole,  1892:180,  was  obtained  as  a 
chance  seedling  by  M.  Billard  about  1860.  About  1884,  M.  Ed. 
Lefort  sowed  the  seeds  of  this  variety,  from  which  he  obtained  a 
race  of  spineless  varieties,  several  of  which  are  described  in  the 
Revue  Horticole,  as  above  cited.  The^variety  we  figure  is  a  dwarf 
form,  very  productive,  and  with  fruit  of  good  flavor.  It  is  the 
form  described  and  figured  by  M.  Carriere  and  Madame  Edouard 
Lefort.  The  varieties  are  grafted  upon  Ribes  aureum,  but  the 
scions  soon  become  free."  Whether  this  desirable  novelty  will 
achieve  any  degree  of  success  in  the  United  States  remains  to  be 
seen. 

Stockwell. — A  moderate  grower.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong, 
smooth,  light  green,  sweet,  good. 

Succeed. — A  fair  grower,  promising  to  be  productive,  and  com- 
paratively free  from  mildew.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong, 
smooth,  yellowish  green,  sweet,  good. 

Sulphur  (Early  Sulphur,).— A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free 
from  mildew.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  round,  nearly  smooth,  fine 
yellow  color,  sweet,  good.  Placed  on  the  list  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  in  1850. 

Sunset. — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  nearly  smooth,  yellowish  green, 
sweet,  of  best  quality. 

Tally  Ho.— A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  pear-shaped,  pale  green,  nearly  smooth, 
sweet,  good. 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES 


409 


Thumper  —A  moderate  grower,  promising  to  be  very  produc- 
tive. Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth,  light  green,  sweet, 
good. 

Triumph. — A  strong  grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew, 
productive.  Fruit  large,  oblong  or  roundish,  pale  yellow,  sweet, 
smooth,  good.  This  variety  has  received  strong  commendation 
from  various  sources.  Mentioned  at  the  meeting  of  the  Western 
New  York  Horticultural  Society  in  1892,  as  very  promising,  a 
stronger  grower  than  Industry  and  equally  productive.  In  the 


Fig.  75.     Whitesmith. 

report  of  .the  American  Pomological  Society  for  1889,  p.  120,  E. 
Williams  says  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  on  any  other  variety 
that  will  grow  in  our  climate. 

Wellington  Glory.— The  most  productive  European  gooseberry 
grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station.  A  strong 
grower,  comparatively  free  from  mildew.  Fruit  attractive  in  ap- 
pearance, medium  to  large,  oblong,  smooth,  with  slight  bloom, 
pale  yellow,  nearly  white,  sweet,  of  very  good  quality. 

White  Eagle.—  Bush  a  moderate  grower,  promising  to  be  pro- 
ductive. Fruit  medium  to  large,  oblong,  pear-shaped,  smooth, 
greenish  wrhite,  sweet,  good.  This  variety  was  exhibited  before 
the  Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society  in  1853. 

Whitesmith  (Woodward's).— A  strong  grower,  somewhat  sub- 
ject to  mildew,  productive.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  nearly  round, 


410  BUSH-FRUITS 

smooth.  Skin  thin  and  tender  for  an  English  sort,  pale  yellowish 
green.  Pulp  sweet,  very  good.  This  variety  has  been  long  known 
in  the  United  States.  It  was  recommended  both  by  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Society  and  the  American  Pomological  Society  in 
1850.  It  was  figured  in  the  Horticulturist,  Vol.  I,  p.  448,  where  it 
is  said  to  be  quite  as  good  among  the  whites  as  Crown  Bob  among 
the  reds  (Fig.  75). 


ENGLISH   VARIETIES   MENTIONED,    BUT    LITTLE    KNOWN 
IN    THE    UNITED   STATES 

The  following  varieties,  though  for  the  most  part 
little  known  in  the  United  States,  have  received  men- 
tion in  American  literature,  and  have  doubtless  all 
been  grown  here  at  one  time  or  another.  Both  Down- 
ing and  Fuller  mention  additional  varieties  of  promise 
which  had  apparently  not  been  tried  on  this  side  the 
water.  No  doubt  others,  not  included  in  this  or  the 
preceding  list,  have  also  been  brought  to  America 
without  attracting  general  attention: 

B.  Atlas  (Hort.  2:410),  Bendelon  (Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118: 
22),  Bennet's  Eureka  (Rept.  U.  S.  Pomologist,  1891:394),  Bobby 
(on  sale  by  Fred.  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y.),  Companion  (Hort. 
1854:142),  Conqueror  (Fuller,  Small-Fruit  Culturist,  p.  223),  Dr. 
Woolley  (for  sale  by  Fred.  E.  Young,  Rochester,  N.  Y.),  Early 
Kent  (Gar.  Month.  1875:207),  Echo  (Hort.  1854:142),  Green 
Globe  (Fuller),  Green  Willow  (Hort.  1854:142),  Hunt's  Tawny 
(Fuller),  Irish  (E.  P.  Powell's  best  gooseberry  for  60  years.— Gar. 
and  For.  7:278),  Jolly  Printer  (Hort.  2:410),  Large  Crystal 
(Fuller),  Late  Emerald  (Gar.  Month.  1877: 275.— Roe,  Success 
with  Small  Fruits),  Red  Walnut  (Fuller),  Roe's  Seedling  (Gar. 
Month.  1876:240.— 1877:274),  Royal  George  (Fuller),  Royal  Sov- 
ereign (Fuller),  Westerman's  Favorite  (Gar.  Month.  1869:271), 
White  Dutch  (Fuller),  White  Walnut  (Fuller),  Yellow  Amber 
(Recommended  by  B.  G.  Smith  as  one  of  four  best  English 
varieties. —Mass.  Hort.  Soc.  Rept.  1883:  [Parti]  125). 

Described  by  Downing,  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America. — 
Bonny  Lass,  Bright  Venus,  British  Crown,  Bunker  Hill,  Cheshire 


ENGLISH    GOOSEBERRIES  411 

Lass,  Duck  Wing,  Early  Green  Hairy,  Glenton  Green,  Golden 
Drop,  Golden  Fleece,  Golden  Gourd,  Green  Gage  (Amer.  Pom.  Soc. 
List,  1850;  Hov.  Mag.  16:305;  Fuller),  Green  Laurel  (Amer.  Pom. 
Soc.  List,  1850;  Hov.  Mag.  16:305),  Green  Ocean,  Green  Prolific, 
Green  Walnut  (Fuller;  recommended  by  N.  Y.  Agr.  Soc.;  also 
by  Amer.  Pom.  Soc.  in  1850),  Greenwood,  Heart  of  Oak,  Jolly 
Tar,  Keen  Seedling,  Lady  of  the  Manor  (Hov.  Mag.  16:  427),  Miss 
Bold,  Rifleman,  Roaring  Lion  ( exhibited  before  the  Massachusetts 
and  Buffalo  Horticultural  Societies  in  1852,  and  before  the  Penn- 
sylvania Horticultural  Society  in  1853;  Hov.  Mag.  1852:41,  519.— 
1853:378),  Rockwood,  Sheba  Queen  (Hov.  Mag.  16:427),  Top 
Sawyer,  Viper,  White  Honey,  White  Lion,  Yellow  Ball,  Yellow 
Champagne  (Fuller). 

Grown  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station. — Described  in  Bul- 
letin 114. — Alderman,  Alice,  Antagonist,  Apology,  Auburn  (Mich. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  118:22),  Beauty,  Berry  Early  Kent,  Bollin  Hall, 
British  Queen,  Briton,  Broom  Girl,  Bull  Dog,  Bury  Lane,  Candi- 
date, Careless,  Catherine,  Cheerful,  Clayton,  Countess  of  Ams- 
dale,  Crank,  Cremore,  Criterion,  Cypress,  Dagwell  No.  1,  Dan's 
Mistake,  Diadem,  Drill,  Du'ck  Wing,  Duke  of  Sutherland,  Duster, 
Faithful,  Falstaff,  Fascination,  Flextonia,  Flora,  Forester,  Fo- 
worius,  Foxhunter,  Freedom,  Galopin,  Garibaldi,  General,  George 
Ridley,  Gipsy  Queen,  Golborne,  Golden  Drop,  Golden  Prolific 
(Pop.  Gar.  4:166),  Governor,  Great  Rock,  Greenock,  Green  Wal- 
nut (Fuller;  recommended  by  N.  Y.  Agr.  Soc.;  also  by  Amer. 
Pom.  Soc.  in  1850),  Gretna  Green,  Harriet,  Helpmate,  Hereof  the 
Nile,  Highlander,  High  Sheriff,  Hit  or  Miss,  Hue  and  Cry,  Iron- 
monger (Fuller;  Amer.  Pom.  Soc.  List  1850;  Hov.  Mag.  16:305), 
Italy,  Jem  Mace,  Jerry,  Jessie,  John  Anderson,  John  Hall,  Jolly 
Sailor,  Keen  Seedling,  King  of  Triumphs,  Lady  Houghton,  Lady 
Stanley,  Largo,  Lavinia,  Leader,  Leviathan,  Lion's  Provider,  Liz- 
zard,  London,  Long  Barney,  Lord  Leigh,  Lord  Rancliffe,  Lord 
Scarborough,  Lowton,  Major  Hibbert,  Marlboro,  Mary  Ann,  Miss 
Chester,  Mitchell,  Mitre,  Monarch,  Monument,  Mount  Pleasant, 
Mrs.  Bowcock,  Mrs.  Whittaker,  Nailor,  Nancy,  Napoleon  le  Grand, 
Nottingham,  Overseer,  Overall,  Peru,  Peto,  Pilot,  Plowboy,  Post- 
man, President,  Pretender,  Priscilla,  Queen  Anne,  Queen  of  Tri- 
umphs, Queen  Victoria,  Red  Robin,  Ringer,  Roaring  Lion  (exhib- 
ited before  the  Massachusetts  and  Buffalo  Horticultural  Societies 
in  1852,  and  before  the  Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society  in  1853; 
Hov.  May.  1852:41,  519—1853:378),  Rough  Red,  Rover,  Rumbul- 
lion, Shiner,  Sir  George  Brown,  Slaughterman,  Snowdrop,  Speed- 
well, Sportsman,  Stella,  Telegraph,  Thatcher,  Thomas  Williams, 
Thompson  Seedling,  Tichborne,  Transparent,  Try  Me  Oh,  Unity, 
Veteran,  Village  Green,  Viper,  Visit,  Wakeful,  Watson,  Weather- 
cock, White  Hare,  William  Watson,  Wonderful,  Yaxley  Hero. 


412  BUSH-FRUITS 


RECOMMENDED    VARIETIES 

The  Downing  is  the  one  gooseberry  to  be  generally 
recommended  at  the  present  time.  Houghton  may  be 
able  to  endure  more  trying  conditions,  and  is  often  more 
productive,  but  is  smaller. 

The  English  varieties  are  to  be  recommended  only  to 
those  who  are  willing  to  inaugurate  a  vigorous  spraying 
campaign  against  the  mildew.  To  such  the  Industry, 
Wellington  Glory,  Columbus  and  Chautauqua  are 
worthy  of  consideration. 

Beach  makes  the  following  summary  remarks  about 
varieties  of  gooseberries:*  "So  far  as  we  are  able  to 
judge  at  present,  Industry,  Crown  Bob  and  Lancashire 
Lad  are  among  the  best  of  the  large  European  kinds  to 
grow  for  marketing  green  fruit.  Wellington  Glory  has 
made  an  excellent  record  here,  and  Whitesmith  is  also 
generally  considered  good  and  productive,  but  has  not 
done  as  well  as  Wellington  Glory.  Among  the  Ameri- 
can-grown seedlings  of  the  European  class  which  have 
been  fruited  here,  Dominion  and  Triumph  deserve 
especial  mention  as  worthy  of  extended  trial.  The  best 
of  the  American  class  of  gooseberries  are  unexcelled  in 
flavor,  quality,  hardiness  and  productiveness.  They  do 
not  have  the  objectionable  thick,  tough  skin  which  is 
common  to  varieties  of  the  European  class,  but  are 
inferior  to  them  in  size.  Downing  has  long  been  con- 
sidered the  standard  of  excellence  in  the  American 
class.  Among  the  recently  introduced  varieties  of  this 


*Bull.  114,  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 


ORNAMENTAL    GROSELLES  413 

class,  the  American  Red  Jacket,  Champion  and  Pearl 
deserve  especial  mention." 

ORNAMENTAL    CURRANTS    AND    GOOSEBERRIES 

The  best  known  species  in  this  role  is  the  Flowering 
Currant,  Ribes  aureum  (known  also  as  R.  fragrans) , 
so  common  in  eastern  gardens.  This  is  a  most  attrac- 
tive plant  early  in  spring.  It  forms  a  graceful,  droop- 
ing shrub,  well  adapted  to  masses  or  groups.  In  the 
early  months  of  summer  few  plants  are  more  attractive 
than  this,  regardless  of  its  bloom,  for  its  foliage  is 
bright  and  glossy,  and  the  form  of  the  plant  perfect. 
Yet  before  the  middle  of  August  its  leaves  are  mostly 
gone.  Were  it  not  for  this  defect,  few  plants  would 
deserve  a  higher  rank  for  ornament. 

The  most  showy  plant  of  the  genus  is  the  Fuchsia- 
flowered  Gooseberry,  Ribes  speciosum,  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  Its  flowers  are  long,  bright  red  and  showy,  and 
its  foliage  small,  firm  and  glossy.  Whether  good 
in  habit  of  plant  or  not,  I  do  not  know,  nor  whether  it 
will  thrive  well  outside  the  clime  of  its  choice,  but  its 
flowers  are  certainly  more  attractive  than  those  of  many 
plants  far  more  widely  grown  for  the  beauty  of  their 
bloom. 

A  plant  which  has  received  much  more  attention  for 
its  flowering  qualities  is  the  Red -flowered  Currant, 
Ribes  sanguineum.  It  has  been  frequently  grown  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe,  and  seems  to  be 
everywhere  prized.  The  flowers  are  rose- colored  or 
reddish  purple,  borne  in  long,  leafless  racemes  and 


414  BUSH-FRUITS 

produced  in  great  profusion.  Unfortunately,  it  is 
not  entirely  hardy  in  the  northern  states,  needing  some 
protection,  which  the  beauty  of  its  bloom  will  well 
repay. 

A  hardier  plant  is  the  hybrid  between  the  preceding 
species  and  Ribes  aureum,  which  is  commonly  known 
under  the  name  Ribes  Gordonianum.  This  is  not  so 
hardy  as  Ribes  aureum,  but  will  stand  more  exposure 
than  Ribes  sanguineum.  It  is  intermediate  in  character 
between  the  two  parents,  resembling  R.  sanguineum  in 
shape  of  flower,  though  the  flowers  are  lighter  in  color 
and  nearly  odorless,  while  the  character  of  bush  is 
more  like  R.  aureum.  Although  not  a  common  plant, 
it  has  been  well  known,  both  here  and  abroad,  and  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  horticultural  literature. 

Several  species  of  the  Menziesii  group  have  large, 
attractive  flowers,  particularly  R.  amictum,  and  R.  Cali- 
fornicum  ;  also,  R.  Lobbii.  Whether  they  would  prove 
attractive  in  habit  of  plant  and  sufficiently  well  adapted 
to  cultivation  to  give  them  value,  I  am  unable  to  say. 

The  common  gooseberries  may  well  play  a  part  in 
systematic  ornamental  planting  for  the  production  of 
easy  and  graceful  spring  effects.  Were  it  not  for  the 
habit  of  early  losing  their  leaves,  there  would  be  few 
plants  more  useful.  R.  oxyacanthoides  and  R.  gracile 
are  especially  desirable. 

The  native  black  currant,  Ribes  Americanum,  also 
forms  a  pretty  and  graceful  shrub,  and  its  flowers  are 
large  enough  to  add  to  its  beauty. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

INSECTS   INJURIOUS    TO    THE    GROSELLES 

Like  all  other  economic  plants,  the  groselles  are 
subject  to  attack  from  insects  of  divers  character, 
appearance,  and  habits.  Some  only  take  a  passing 
bite,  like  the  schoolboy  who  devours  beech  leaves, 
"sweetbrier,"  birch,  etc.,  to  appease  his  ceaseless  crav- 
ings in  the  long  hours  from  meal  to  meal.  Others, 
indifferently  feeding  upon  whatever  plant  is  available, 
may  at  times  eat  more  than  we  wish.  Still  others,  on 
evil  bent,  assiduously  seek  out  our  cherished  bushes 
and  settle  down  to  a  steady  diet  of  groselles  with  all 
the  persistence  characteristic  of  their  race.  The  list 
immediately  following  comprises  those  most  likely  to 
work  serious  injury. 

THE    LEADING    PESTS 

THE  FOUR- LINED  LEAF-BUG 
Pcecilocapsus  lineatus  (Fabr.). -Order  Hemiptera.    Family  Capsidre. 

Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  1:  271.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  to  Fruits,  350  (2nd  edition). 
Cook,  Bull.  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  76  :  10.  Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Exp. 
Sta.  58:  207-239.  Pcecilocapsus 4-vittatiis  (Say).  Riley,  Bull,  U.  S.  Div. 
Ent.  13:7.  Webster,  Bull.  U.  S.  Div.  Ent.  13  : 54.  For  complete  synon- 
ymy, see  Slingerland,  1.  c. 

This  is  a  native  insect  which  was  first  described  by  Fabricius 
in  1798.  It  came  into  notice  as  injurious  to  dahlias,  currants  and 
other  plants  seon  ajfter  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  and  has 
never  ceased  its  evil  ways  from  that  day  to  this.  Its  food  plants 
embrace  esculent  and  ornamental  plants  and  a  few  weeds. 

(415) 


416  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  insect  appears  about  the  middle  of  May  in  northern  lati- 
tudes, and  takes  up  its  abode  on  the  tenderest  leaves  at  the  tip  of 
the  twigs.  It  is  then  too  small  to  be  readily  seen,  but  by  means 
of  its  proboscis,  a  perpetual  self-acting  pump,  it  immediately 
begins  to  drain  the  leaf  of  its  sap.  At  first  its  work  is  not  con- 
spicuous, but  soon  becomes  manifest  by  the  appearance  of  small, 
dark  spots,  which  later  turn  brown  and  die,  the  soft  part  of  the 
leaf  within  having  been  sucked  out.  These  spots,  which  at  first 
are  not  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  may  become  much  larger 
and  even  run  together,  causing  the  death  of  the  entire  leaf. 
The  shoot  itself  may  be  checked  in  growth,  or  even  killed. 

The  nymphs,  or  immature  forms  of  the  insect,  are  at  first  very 
small,  but  easily  recognized  by  the  shining  vermilion-red  color  of 
the  body,  marked  by  blackish  spots  on  the  thorax.  The  mature 
insect  is  a  bright  orange-yellow  colored  bug,  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long,  with  four  black  stripes  extending  down  the  back. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  in  slits  near  the  tips  of  twigs  of 
the  present  year's  growth  of  currants,  gooseberries,  and  other 
shrubs.  They  are  deposited  late  in  June,  and  remain  in  this 
position  until  the  nymphs  hatch  the  following  spring.  These 
undergo  five  moults  before  reaching  the  adult  form.  The  adults 
disappear  early  in  July,  there  being  but  one  brood  a  year. 

Remedies. — Since  the  insect  feeds  by  sucking  the  sap  of  the 
plant  from  the  inner  tissues  of  the  leaf,  the  application  of  poisons 
like  Paris  green  can  do  no  good.  Kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with 
not  more  than  five  parts  of  water,  if  very  thoroughly  applied 
while  the  insects  are  still  young,  will  prove  effective.  The  egg 
clusters  are  not  difficult  to  find,  and  since  they  remain  over  win- 
ter, trimming  off  and  burning  five  or  six  inches  of  infested  twigs 
is  a  practicable  remedy,  at  least  on  a  small  scale. 

THE  CURRANT  PLANT-LOUSE 

Myzus  riUs  (Linn.). — Order  Hemiptera.     Family  Aphididse. 

Lintner,  N.  Y.  I&p.  9  :  370.    Weed,  Ins.  and  Insecticides,  100.      Aphis  ribis, 
Linn.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Fruits,  351. 

• 
This  is  a  small,  yellowish  plant-louse,  appearing  on  the  under 

surface  of    currant    leaves   toward  midsummer,   causing  them  to 


THE   CURRANT  PL  ANT-LOU  SMI  417 

curl  and  present  a  blistered  and  generally  a  reddish  appearance  on 
the  upper  surface.  This,  like  other  plant -lice,  may  be  destroyed 
by  kerosene  emulsion,  but  is  so  protected  within  the  curled  leaves 
as  to  be  very  difficult  to  reach.  Success  depends  on  applying  the 
remedy  very  promptly  before  the  leaves  become  much  curled.  In 
the  home-garden,  hand-picking  will  doubtless  prove  simpler.  The 
larvse  are  often  destroyed  in  great  numbers  by  the  two -spotted 
lady-bug.  They  are  also  subject  to  attack  from  a  small  hymen - 
opterous  parasite,  which  often  does  good  service  in  depleting  their 
numbers. 

THE  SAN  JOSE"  SCALE 

Aspidiotus    perniciosus,     Comstock. —  Order     Hemiptera.      Family 
Coccidse. 

Comstoek,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1880 :  304.     Howard,  U.  S.  Div.  Ent.  Circu- 
lar 3,  2d  series.    Riley,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1893  :  215. 

This  insect  first  made  its  appearance  in  California  about  1870, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Chili.  It  was  de- 
scribed by  Professor  Comstock  in  1880,  and  since  then  has  received 
attention  from  numerous  writers.  It  has  worked  serious  injury  in 
California,  and  although  not  reported  east  of  the  Missouri  River 
until  1893,  it  has  become  widely  scattered  throughout  the  eastern 
states.  The  insect  is  a  near  relative  of  the  oyster-shell  bark- 
louse,  and  appears  as  a  round,  flat  scale  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  resembling  the  bark  in  color,  but  with  a  black 
speck  in  the  center.  It  attaches  itself  to  the  fruit  and  branches 
of  pear,  peach,  apple,  raspberry,  gooseberry,  currant,  and  other 
plants.  It  is  thus  distributed  both  on  fruit  and  nursery  stock,  a 
fact  which  accounts  for  its  rapid  and  widely  scattered  distribution. 
The  females  are  wingless,  but  when  young  can  crawl  short  dis- 
tances before  becoming  fixed  in  their  position. 

Remedies. — The  San  Jose"  scale  is  not  easily  baffled.  It  has 
recently  caused  much  excitement  in  the  pomological  world.  An 
avalanche  of  literature  and  legislation  has  been  hurled  against  it, 
and  remedies  without  number  have  been  tried.  The  treatment 
recommended  by  the  Division  of  Entomology  at  Washington  con- 
sists in  thorough  spraying  with  whale-oil  soap  and  water  in  the 
proportion  of  two  pounds  to  the  gallon,  when  the  trees  or  plants 
are  dormant,  preferably  toward  spring,  since  early  spraying  has 


418  BUSH-FRUITS 

been  found  to  reduce  the  amount  of  bloom.  Infested  nursery 
stock  can  be  most  effectively  treated  by  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  but 
this  is  a  dangerous  insecticide,  which  should  be  used  only  by  those 
who  know  perfectly  well  how  to  do  it.*  Late  experiments  at  Cor- 
nell and  in  New  Jersey  show  that  the  pest  is  easily  destroyed  in 
summer  by  a  spray  of  kerosene  and  water.  At  Cornell,  one  part  of 
kerosene  to  four  of  water  gave  efficient  treatment. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY  FRUIT -WORM 

Zopliodia     grossularice      (Pack.). — Order      Lepidoptera.        Family 
Phycitidse. 

Pempelia  grossularice,  Pack.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  1:140.  Myelois  convolutellq, 
Zell.  Thomas,  111.  Rep.  7:251.  Dakruma  convolutella.  (ZelL),  or 
(Hiibn.).  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Fruits,  357.  Weed,  Ins.  and  Insect!.,  101. 

The  larva  of  this  moth  works  within  the  fruit  of  the  gooseberry, 
and  sometimes  of  the  currant.  The  moths  appear  early  in  spring 
and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  very  young  fruit. 
The  larva  bores  into  the  fruit  and  eats  out  its  contents.  When 
one  berry  is  disposed  of  another  is  fastened  to  the  now  empty 
shell,  and  the  worm  bores  its  way  into  that  one.  Several  fruits 
may  be  thus  destroyed.  The  larva  commonly  reaches  maturity  by 
the  first  of  July,  when  it  is  a  pale  green  caterpillar,  about  three - 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  small,  pale  brown,  horny  looking 
head.  It  then  descends  to  the  ground  and  spins  a  thin  cocoon 
among  fallen  leaves  and  rubbish,  within  which  it  changes  to  a 
chrysalis,  remaining  in  this  condition  until  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — Infested  berries  color  prematurely,  and  can  be 
hand-picked,  taking  care  that  the  very  active  worms  do  not 
quickly  leave  the  fruit.  If  chickens  are  allowed  in  the  field 
after  fruiting  time,  they  will  consume  many  of  the  chrysalids. 

THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT  BORER 


Sesia  tipuliformis  (Linn.).— Order  Lepidoptera.     Family  Sesiidse. 

Comstoek,  Man.  of  Ins.,  261.  JEgeria  tipuliformis,  Linn.  Saunders,  Ins. 
Inj.  Frts.  336.  Cook,  Rep.  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.  1890  :  106.  TrochiUum 
tipuliforme  (Linn.).  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3  :  423. 

This  is  a  slender,  rapid-flying,  wasp-like,  dark  blue  moth,  half 


See  The  Nursery-Book  as  to  use  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 


THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT  BORER       419 

an  inch  long  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  broad,  having  three 
yellow  bands  across  the  body  and  a  yellow  collar.  It  appears 
toward  the  end  of  May  or  the  first  of  June,  and  deposits  its  eggs 
upon  the  stems  near  a  bud.  When  hatched  the  larva  eats  its  way 
directly  to  the  center,  thence  upward  and  downward  in  the  pith. 
Here  it  remains  until  the  following  year,  meanwhile  eating  out  a 
tunnel  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length.  When  full  grown,  the 
larva  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  white,  with  a  brown  head  and  a 
few  hairs  scattered  over  its  body.  Like  many  other  immigrants  in 
the  insect  world,  this  species  appears  to  prosecute  its  work  with 
renewed  energy  in  the  home  of  its  adoption,  far  outstripping  the 
native  currant  borer  in  the  success  of  its  undertakings.  It  pre- 
fers the  red  currant,  but  it  is  not  too  fastidious  to  accept  the  black 
currant  or  gooseberry  as  a  substitute  when  occasion  demands. 
Remedies. — The  method  of  treatment,  which  is  the  same  for  all 
species  of  borers  attacking  these  plants,  consists  in  pruning  away 
and  burning  all  infested  canes,  late  in  winter  or  early  in  spring, 
before  the  moths  emerge.  With  several  canes  allowed  to  grow, 
and  all  wood  cut  away  after  it  has  borne  one  or  two  crops,  this 
result  will  be  accomplished  with  little  extra  trouble. 

THE  CURRANT  SPAN-WORM 

Diastictis    ribearia    (Fitch). —  Order     Lepidoptera.       Family    En- 
nomidse. 

Comstock,  Manual,  279.  Abraxas  ribearia,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3  : 427.  Eu- 
fitchia  ribearia  (Fitch).  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  9  :  3.  Cook,  Bull.  Mich.  Exp. 
Sta.,  73  :  9. 

This  is  the  larva  of  a  native  pale  yellowish  moth,  marked  with 
several  dusky  spots,  and  measuring  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
across.  The  larva  when  full  grown  is  about  an  inch  long,  of  a 
whitish  color,  with  broad  yellow  stripes  running  down  the  back 
and  sides,  and  with  a  number  of  black  spots  on  each  segment.  It 
is  a  "measuring  worm,"  moving  by  arching  its  body  in  the  center. 
When  disturbed,  it  drops  from  the  leaf  and  remains  suspended  in 
the  air  by  a  web.  It  is  most  commonly  found  upon  the  gooseberry 
or  black  currant,  appearing  soon  after  the  leaves  expand.  It  at- 
tains its  full  growth  within  three  or  four  weeks,  descends  to  the 
ground  and  transforms  to  a  pupa,  hidden  by  rubbish,  or  just  be- 


420  BUSH-FRUITS 

neath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  moth  emerges  about  two 
weeks  later.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  twigs,  which  they 
resemble  in  color,  and  are  therefore  hard  to  detect.  Here  they 
remain  until  spring,  there  being  but  one  brood  a  year.  It  thus 
happens  that  the  sale  of  plants  affords  a  ready  means  for  the 
spread  of  the  insect. 

Remedies. —  This  is  commonly  not  a  serious  enemy,  but  when  it 
does  become  numerous,  is  more  difficult  to  destroy  than  the  ordi- 
nary currant  worm.  Hellebore,  if  used,  must  be  much  stronger 
than  for  the  imported  currant  worm.  Paris  green  will  prove  more 
effective  whenever  the  fruit  does  not  prevent  its  use.  Disturbing 
the  bushes  and  gathering  up  the  worms  as  they  hang  suspended 
from  Jtheir  webs,  is  sometimes  recommended.  Several  parasites 
prey  upon  them  and  do  good  service  in  thinning  out  their  ranks. 

THE  CURRANT  FRUIT-WORM 

Eupithecia  implicata,  Walk.     Var.  interrupto  fasciata,  Pack.     Order 
Lepidoptera.     Family  Geometridse. 

F-upithecia  interrupto- fasciata,  Pack.     Thomas,  111.  Rep.  11:  23.     Saunders, 
Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  352. 

This  is  a  span-worm  which  attacks  the  fruit  of  the  currant  by 
eating  a  hole  into  the  side  of  the  berry,  and  devouring  a  portion 
of  the  interior,  spoiling  more  fruit  than  it  actually  consumes.  It 
is  easily  distinguished  from  the  gooseberry  fruit -worm  by  having 
only  ten  legs,  while  the  latter  has  sixteen. 

Remedies. — While  seldom  causing  serious  injury,  it  may,  under 
favorable  conditions,  develop  sufficient  numbers  to  work  much 
harm.  It  appears  at  the  same  time  as  the  common  currant  worm, 
and  the  ordinary  treatment  with  hellebore  may  also  keep  it  in 
check.  Pyrethrum,  and  probably  air-slaked  lime,  applied  when 
the  dew  is  on,  would  doubtless  prove  effective. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY  MIDGE 

Cecidomyia    grossularice,     Fitch. — Order    Diptera.      Family   Ceci- 
domyiidss. 

Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  1:176.-3:150.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.,  359. 
This  insect  is  a  small,  yellowish  fly,  scarcely  one-tenth  of  an 


THE    CURRANT  FLY  421 

inch  in  length.  The  eggs,  which  are  deposited  beneath  the  skin 
of  the  young  fruit,  hatch  and  develop  into  small,  bright  yellow, 
oval  maggots,  resembling  those  of  the  wheat  midge.  These 
change  to  pupse  within  the  fruit,  and  emerge  as  perfect  flies  in 
midsummer.  Further  than  this  the  life  history  seems  to  be  un- 
known. Their  presence  causes  the  fruit  to  turn  prematurely  red 
and  become  soft  and  putrid  within. 

Remedies. — The  only  remedy  thus  far  known  to  be  effective  is  to 
pick  and  destroy  all  fruit  which  turns  prematurely. 

THE  CURRANT  FLY 
Epochra   Canadensis  (Loew.). — Order  Diptera.     Family  Muscidee. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.,  352.  Harvey,  Maine  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Kept. 
1895  :  111.— Also  Bull.  35.  Trypeta  Canadensis,  Loew,  Mon.  Dip.  N. 
Am.,  3  :  235.  Gillette,  Bull.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.,  19  :18. 

This  insect  is  a  yellow  or  orange -colored  fly,  about  the  size  of 
the  common  house-fly,  with  greenish  iridescent  eyes  and  smoky 
patches  or  bands  across  its  wings.  It  punctures  the  skin  of  the 
young  currant  or  gooseberry,  depositing  its  egg  just  beneath.  This 
soon  develops  into  a  small  white  grub  which  measures  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  in  length.  Its  presence  causes  the  fruit  to  turn 
red  and  fall  to  the  ground  prematurely.  After  becoming  full 
grown,  the  maggots  leave  the  fruit  and  enter  the  ground,  where 
they  change  to  pupae,  emerging  as  perfect  flies  early  the  following 
summer. 

Although  not  usually  considered  a  serious  enemy,  it  has  been 
found  very  destructive  in  Colorado,  and  also  in  Maine,  causing  the 
loss  of  75  per  cent  of  the  fruit  at  times. 

Remedies. — No  very  practicable  remedy  seems  yet  to  have  been* 
found.  The  insect  spends  about  eleven  months  of  the  year  safely 
buried  in  the  ground.  No  way  of  destroying  the  mature  flies 
seems  feasible,  and  the  egg  is  deposited  beneath  the  skin  of  the 
fruit  beyond  the  reach  of  insecticides.  The  only  weak  point  in  its 
campaign  appears  to  be  that  part  of  the  infested  fruit  drops  pre- 
maturely and  the  larvse  remain  in  it  for  a  time  after  it  falls. 
Hence,  frequently  gathering  and  burning  the  fallen  fruit  will  de- 
stroy many.  If  all  the  insects  thus  fell  with  the  fruit,  this  would 


422  BUSH-FRUITS 

be  an  effective,  though  somewhat  expensive  remedy,  but  unfortu- 
nately some  larvae  escape  from  the  fruit  before  it  drops.  One 
grower  thinks  that  allowing  young  chickens  among  the  bushes  till 
picking  time,  and  older  fowls  later,  proved  effective.  The  pupse 
transform  within  an  inch  of  the  surface,  so  that  thorough  culti- 
vation would  disturb  many  of  them,  and  might  expose  them  to 
subsequent  injury  during  winter,  or  favor  their  being  picked  up  by 
birds.  Eemoving  an  inch  of  soil  would  carry  them  with  it.  The 
flies  are  thought  to  be  so  weak  that  a  heavy  mulch  placed  about 
the  plants  while  the  pupae  are  in  the  ground,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main, would  prevent  many  of  them  from  emerging. 

THE  AMERICAN  CURRANT  BORER 

Psenocerus   supernotatus   (Say).— Order    Coleoptera.      Family    Ce- 
rambycidae. 

Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3  :  416.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.,  337.     Cook,  Rep.  Mich. 
Hort.  Soc.  1890  :  106. 

This  insect,  though  very  similar  in  its  habits  to  the  imported 
currant  borer,  belongs  to  an  entirely  different  order.  When  ma- 
ture, instead  of  being  a  moth,  it  is  a  small,  narrow,  brownish 
beetle,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  varying  in  length  from  one-eighth 
to  one -fourth  of  an  inch.  The  larva  is  a  small,  white,  round  and 
wrinkled  grub  without  feet.  The  life  history  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  the  imported  insect,  and  larvae  of  both  are  some- 
times found  together  in  the  same  stalk. 

Remedies. — Cutting  out  and  burning  infested  stalks  will  prove 
effective. 

THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT   WORM 

Pteronus  ribesii  (Scop.). — Order  Hymenoptera.     Family  Tenthre- 
dinidse. 

Marlatt    Revis.    Nematinas  of    North  Amer.,   61.     Nematus  ventricosus, 

Klug.    Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  9  :  7.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.,  339.     Weed, 

Ins.  and  Insds.,  97.    Nematus  trimaculatus,  St.  Fargeau.  Fitch,  N.  Y. 
Rep.  12  :  909.    For  full  bibliography,  see  Marlatt,  1.  c. 

This  most  familiar  inhabitant  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry 
bushes  is  a  four- winged  saw- fly,  about  the  size  of  the  common 
house  fly .  It  first  appeared  in  the  United  States  in  the  vicinity  of 


THE    CURRANT    WORM 


423 


Rochester,  N.  Y.,  about  1857,  being  mentioned  in  "The  Rural 
New-Yorker"  of  July  24,  1858,  p.  239.  The  male  is  black,  with 
some  yellow  spots,  glossy  wings  and  yellow  legs.  The  female  is 
larger  than  the  male,  bright  honey  yellow,  with  a  black  head.  It 
is  not  in  this  dress,  however, 
that  we  best  know  the  insect. 
Its  eggs  are  deposited  in  rows 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves, 
along  the  principal  veins  (Fig. 
76) ,  in  early  spring.  Dr.  Lint- 
ner  observed  a  female  de- 
posit thirty  eggs  on  a  single 
currant  leaf  within  one  hour. 
These  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and 
open  the  season's  campaign 
by  eating  small  holes  in  the 
leaf.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
rows,  and  the  young  larvse  at 
first  feed  in  companies  (Fig 
77),  but  later,  as  size  and 
appetite  increase,  they  scatter 
to  all  parts  of  the  bush. 

The  insect  is  fastidious  in 
its  dress  during  the  larval 
stage.  It  first  appears  in  a 

modest  garb  of  dull  white,  which  it  soon  exchanges  for  green, 
to  which  many  black  spots  are  added  later,  these  in  turn  giving 
place  to  a  plain  green  tinged  with  yellow,  as  it  approaches  ma- 
turity. When  full  grown,  it  measures  about  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length.  It  then  forms  a  silken  cocoon,  hidden  by  rub- 
bish on  the  ground,  just  beneath  the  surface,  or  occasionally 
attached  to  stems  and  leaves  above  ground.  The  winged  insect 
emerges  the  last  of  June  or  first  of  July,  to  repeat  the  same 
cycle,  there  being  two  broods  a  year,  the  last  one  passing  the 
winter  in  the  pupa  state.  The  separate  broods  do  not  emerge  all 
at  once,  hence  there  is  a  practical  continuation  of  hostilities 
throughout  the  season. 


Fig.  76.    Eggs  of  the  currant  worm. 


424 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Remedies. — A  history  of  the  remedies  which  have  been  em- 
ployed against  this  insect  since  its  advent  in  this  country  would 
afford  spicy  reading,  with  no  lack  of  variety.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  use  of  kerosene  emulsion  seems  to  have  had  its  be- 
ginning in  fighting  this  insect,  about  1870.*  The  following  brief 
mention  will  show  something  of  the  range  of  ammunition  brought 
into  play  against  this  enemy.  Salt  and  water,  Gardener's 
Monthly,  1881:17.  Tobacco  water,  Ibid,  1881:241.  Sulphur 
sprinkled  on  the  bushes  when  wet,  Ibid,  1882 : 148.  Smudge  with 
burning  leather  and  sulphur  under  the  bushes,  Ibid,  1862  :  213. 
Red  currants  untouched  if  black  currants  are  planted  among  them, 
Tilton's  Journal,  8  :  35.  Copperas  dissolved  in  water,  Ibid,  8  :  23. 
Carbolate  of  lime,  Ibid,  9  :  149.  Tansy  decoction,  Ibid  9  :  246. 
Wood  ashes  applied  when  leaves  are  wet,  Ibid  9  :  309;  also  "Ru- 
ral New-Yorker,"  1897  :  375.  Carbolic  acid,  Horticulturist, 
1870  :  221.  Picking  off  leaves  at  base  of  bushes  where  most  eggs 

are  deposited  before  they 
hatch,  or  immediately  after. 
Coal  tar  dissolved  in  turpen- 
tine, with  slaked  lime  and 
water  added,  Ibid,  1870  :  222. 
Knocking  off  the  worms  to 
let  them  fall  on  the  hot 
ground  when  the  sun  is  bright^ 
Ibid,  1871  :  159.  Howe  Cave 
fertilizer,  Grafton  mineral 
fertilizer  and  Colburn's  cur- 
rant-worm exterminator  men- 
tioned as  ineffectual,  Ibid, 
1873  :172.  Mixing  wood  ashes 
Fig.  77.  First  work  of  currant  worm.  with  the  soil,  Ibid,  1873  :  192. 

Mulching  with  tobacco  stems, 

"Popular  Gardening,"  2:129.  Mulching  with  coal  ashes,  Ibid, 
6 : 220.  Air-slaked  lime  and  tobacco  dust,  Insect  Life,  1  : 17. 
Alum,  Ibid,  1:229.  Decoction  of  foxglove,  Gar.  Month.,  1874: 


"Tilton's  Journal,  8:  23,  176.— 9:213.    Gardener's  Monthly,  1874:  149. 


CURRANT    WORMS  425 

254.  Soot,  also  rue  and  chamomile  planted  among  the  bushes, 
Tilton's  Jour.,  4:233.  Decoction  of  elder  leaves  and  tobacco 
water,  Ibid,  7:187.  Young  chickens,  Hovey's  Mag.,  1854:527. 

In  1869,  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  offered  a  prize 
of  twenty -five  dollars  for  "a  safe,  certain  and  economical 
method,  better  than  any  now  known,  of  destroying  the  currant 
worm,  or  preventing  its  ravages." 

It  is  easily  controlled  by  the  application  of  white  hellebore, 
half  an  ounce  or  a  teaspoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water,  as  soon  as  the 
worms  appear.  The  eggs  of  the  first  brood  are  laid  chiefly  on  the 
tufts  of  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  and  Paris  green  or  LondoL. 
purple  may  be  used  for  the  first  application,  while  the  larvae  are 
yet  on  these  leaves.  The  work  should  be  thorough,  for  if  the 
bushes  are  defoliated,  even  after  the  fruit  is  off,  the  crop  of  the 
succeeding  year  suffers  in  consequence.  At  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  the  cost  of  spraying  twice  and  completely  protecting  the 
plants  was  found  to  be  but  $5  per  acre. 

THE  NATIVE  CURRANT  WORM 

Pristiphora    grossularice,    Walsh. — Order    Hymenoptera.      Family 
Tenthredinidse. 

Walsh,  Pract.  Ent.,  1 : 123.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.,  9  :  23.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj. 
Frts.,  343.  Walsh  and  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.,  2  :  22.  Pristiphora  rufipes, 
St.  Fargeau.  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.,  12  :  908.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.,  344. 

This  is  a  saw-fly  closely  related  to  the  imported  currant  worm, 
though  smaller  in  size,  and  belonging  to  a  different  genus.  The 
larva  is  solid  green  in  color,  never  having  black  spots  like  the 
other.  The  life  history  is  much  the  same,  except  that  the  second 
brood  emerges  from  the  pupal  stage  in  autumn,  and  deposits  its 
eggs  upon  the  branches,  where  they  remain  during  the  winter, 
hatching  the  following  spring.  The  young  larvse  do  not  feed  in 
groups.  This  insect  seldom  causes  serious  injury.  It  is  men- 
tioned chiefly  on  account  of  its  relationship  to  its  European 
cousin,  by  whom  it  is  so  far  outstripped  in  the  work  of  life  set 
apart  for  a  currant  worm  to  do. 

Remedy.— The  same  remedy  employed  against  the  other  insect 
is  effective  against  this  one. 


426  BUSH-FRUITS 


THE  CURRANT  STEM-GIRDLER 

Janus  integer  (Norton). — Order  Hymenoptera.      Family  Uroceridre. 

Slingerland,  Bull.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.,  126  :  41.  Oephus  integer,  Nor 
ton,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  8  :  224.  Janus  flaviventris ,  Fitch, 
N.  Y.  Rept..  7  :  12.  Lintner,  N.  Y.  Kept.,  4  :  47.— 8  :  166.  Phyllcecus 
flaviventris  (Fitch).  Marlatt,  Ins.  Life,  6  :  296.— 7  :  387. 

This,  too,  is  a  native  saw-fly,  but  the  larvae,  instead  of  feeding 
on  the  leaves,  like  the  others,  burrow  in  the  pith  of  the  currant 
stems.  The  egg  is  laid  within  the  pith  of  the  young  shoots  a  few 
inches  from  the  tips.  After  depositing  the  egg  the  female  fly 
moves  upward  and  proceeds  to  girdle  the  stem  at  a  point  from  half 
an  inch  to  an  inch  above  where  the  egg  was  placed.  The  cane 
may  be  entirely  severed  by  this  girdling,  or  may  still  cling  by  a 
small  portion,  but  quickly  wilts,  and  generally  soon  falls  away. 
The  larva,  which  is  nearly  half  an  inch  long  at  maturity,  burrows 
downward,  eating  out  the  pith  as  it  goes,  and  leaving  its  channel 
filled  with  dark  brownish  refuse.  Toward  autumn  it  eats  a  pas- 
sage way  to  the  outer  bark,  wraps  itself  in  a  thin  silken  cocoon 
and  passes  the  winter  in  the  lower  end  of  its  burrow.  In  the 
spring  it  changes  to  a  pupa,  and  thence  emerges  as  a  perfect  in- 
sect in  May.  It  is  then  a  shining  black  fly,  with  the  hind  part  of 
the  body  and  front  of  the  abdomen  yellow,  measuring  about  half 
an  inch  in  length  by  three -fourths  of  an  inch  in  breadth,  with  the 
wings  extended. 

Remedies. — Cutting  out  and  burning  all  injured  tips  is  an  effi- 
cient and  practical  remedy.  The  larvae  rarely  get  more  than  six 
inches  below  where  the  egg  is  laid,  and  this  being  only  an  inch 
or  so  below  the  girdle,  cutting  away  eight  inches  of  the  stem  at 
any  time  during  the  summer  or  winter,  will  destroy  the  insect. 
If  done  soon  after  the  girdle  is  made  two  or  three  inches  will 
suffice.  The  larvae  may  readily  be  found  by  splitting  open  the 
cane.  Many  eggs  fail  to  develop,  and  the  young  larvae  often 
perish  before  attaining  their  growth.  This  checks  their  increase, 
but  does  not  affect  the  injury  for  the  current  year.  The  larvee 
are  subject  to  attack  from  hymenopterous  parasites.  In  one 
case  Professor  Slingerland  (loc.  cit.)  saw  five  tiny  parasites 
(Bracon  apicatus,  Prov.)  emerge  from  a  single  cocoon. 


GROSELLE  INSECTS  427 


THE    LESS    IMPORTANT    ENEMIES 

The  foregoing  list  includes  those  species  which 
have  either  proved  themselves,  or  which  promise  to 
be,  seriously  injurious.  Many  other  species  have  been 
found  upon  these  plants  which  seldom  do  harm.  Many 
of  these  are  general  feeders,  and  in  other  cases  the  work 
is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  affect  the  plant  but  little.  No 
sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  those  which  do  much 
and  those  which  do  little  injury,  for  under  special  con- 
ditions the  ones  which  are  normally  of  little  impor- 
tance may  become  unusually  destructive. 


CLASS  ARACHNIDA  (Spiders  and  their  relatives) 
Order  Acarina 

Tetranychus  telarius  (Linn.).     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.   Frts.  355.     The 

Red  Spider,  which  occasionally  attacks  the  black  currant  in  dry 

weather. 
Bryobia  pratensis,  Garman.     The  Clover  Mite.    Riley  and   Marlatt 

Ins.  Life,  3:45.     Observed  on  wild  gooseberry,  Ribes  gracile,  at 

Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Tyroglyphus  ribis,  Fitch.  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:424.  On  diseased  currant 
stems. 

CLASS  HEXAPODA  (Insects) 

Order  Orthoptera 
FAMILY  ACRIDID^E. 

Melanoplus  femur-rubrum  (DeG.).  [Caloptenus  femur-rubrum 
(DeG.).  111.  Ent.  Rep.  14  (Gen.  Ind.  Supplement).]  The  com- 
mon red-legged  grasshopper.  A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  LOCUSTID^E. 

Amblycorypha  oblongifolia  (DeG.).  [Phylloptera  oblongifolia, 
DeG.  Riley,  Amer.  Ent.  2:182.]  Eggs  occur  on  currant  and 
other  woody  stems. 


428  B  USH-FR  UIT8 

Order  Hemiptera 
FAMILY  COREID.S!. 

Leptoglossus  phyllopus,  Linn.  Ins.  Life  4:79.  On  currant  leaves; 
normally  predaceous. 

FAMILY  PENTATOMID^;. 

Cosmopepla  carnifex  (Fabr.).  Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  2:144.  Attacking 
currant  fruit. 

FAMILY  FULGORID^E. 

Poeciloptera  pruinosa,  Say.  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:436.  Saunders, 
Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  357.  Riley,  Mo.  Rep.  5:122.  On  leaves  and  young 
shoots  of  many  plants. 

FAMILY  JASSID^E. 

Typhlocyba  obliqua  (Say).  [Erythroneura  obliqua  (Say).  Fitch, 
N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  435.]  On  currant  leaves. 

Typhlocyba  tricincta  (Fitch).  Forbes,  111.  Rep.  14:115.  [Erythro- 
neura tricincta,  Fitch.  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  392.]  On  leaves  of  currant, 
raspberry,  grape  and  elm. 

Empoasca  albopicta  (Forbes).  [Empoa  albopicta,  Forbes,  111.  Rep. 
13:181. -14:117.  Weed,  Rep.  O.  Exp.  Sta.  1888: 152. -Ins.  and 
Insecticides  99.]  On  leaves  of  apple,  currant,  gooseberry  and 
other  plants.  Remedy,  pyrethrum. 

FAMILY  APHIDID-S;. 

Nectarophora  lactucce  (Kalt.).  [  Siphonophora  lactucce,  Linn.  Thomas 
111.  rep.  8:  60.]  On  lettuce,  Ribes  and  many  other  plants. 

FAMILY  COCCIDJE. 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis  (Rath von).  Comstock,  Rep.  Cornell  Univ. 
Exp.  Sta.  2:137.  Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  6:141.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj. 
Frts.  241.  Piper,  Bull.  Wash.  Exp.  Sta.  7:123.  [Coccus  innu- 
merabilis (Rath von).  For  complete  synonomy,  see  Comstock,  1.  c.] 
On  many  plants,  including  currant.* 

Lecanium  cynosbati,  Fitch.  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  436.  Comstock,  Rep. 
Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2:133.  On  wild  gooseberry  stems. 

Lecanium  ribis,  Fitch.  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  427.  Comstock,  Rep.  Cornell 
Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2: 135.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  338.  On  currant 
stems. 

Aspidiotus  ancylus,  Putnam.  Comstock,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
1880:292.  Rep.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2:58.  Beckwith,  Rep. 
Del.  Exp.  Sta.  7: 168.  On  currant. 

*A  western  form  of  this  species  has  proved  quite  destructive  to  currants  in 
Washington  state.  Prof.  Cockerell  proposes  the  variety-name  occidentalis  for 
this  form.  It  is  referred  to  in  Meehan's  Monthly,  1896:37,  under  the  erroneous 
name  P.  ribis. 


UNIVERSITY 

of 


GROSELLE  INSECTS  429 

Aspidiotus  nerii,  Bouche.     Oomstock,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  1880: 

301.     Rep.   Cornell   Univ.   Exp.   Sta.   2:63.     Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep. 

5:  279.     On  oleander  and  a  great  variety  of  other  plants. 
Mutilaspis  pomorum  (Bouche).     Corastock,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

1880:325.     Rep.    Cornell   Univ.    Exp.    Sta.  2:118.     Saunders,  Ins. 

Inj.  Frts.  40.     On  apple,  occasionally  elsewhere. 
Chionaspis  furfurus    (Fitch).     Comstock.    Rep.    U.    S.    Dept.    Agr. 

1880:  315.     Matlack,  Ins.  Life  1:  324.     [Aspidiotus  furfurus,  Fitch, 

N.  Y.  Rep.   3:352.     Aspidiotus  cerasi,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:368.] 

On  apple,  pear,  currant  and  others. 
Diaspis   ostreceformis    (Curtis).     Comstock,    Rep.   U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

1880:  311.     Rep.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  2:  94.     [Aspidiotus  circu- 

laris,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  426.    Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  338.]    On 

apple,  pear  and  currant. 


Order  Lepidoptera 
FAMILY  EUCLEID^:. 

Empretia  stimulea,  Clemens.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  113  and  353. 
Packard,  For.  Ins.  146.  Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  225.  A  general 
feeder. 

FAMILY  GRAPHOLITHID.E. 

Exartema  exoleta  (Zeller).  [Eccopsis  exoletum,  Zell.  Forbes,  111. 
Rep.  14:117.]  On  currant  and  gooseberry. 

FAMILY  TORTBICIDJB. 

Caccecia   rosana,   Linn.      Comstock   and   Slingerland,   Bull.   Cornell 

Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  23:119.     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  244.     On  currant. 
Caccecia  argyrospila,  Walk.     Packard,  For.  Ins.  192.     Gillette,  Bull. 

Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  19:  3.    A  general  feeder. 
Caccecia   rosaceana    (Harris).     Packard,    For.    Ins.    505.     Saunders, 

Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  90.    A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  SKSinxac. 

Alcathoe'  caudatum  (Harris).  Jack,  Gar.  and  For.  1891:496. 
[JEgeria  caudata,  Harris.  French,  111.  Rep.  7:172.  Trochilium 
caudatum  (Harris).  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:424.]  On  the  root  of 
black  currant  and  clematis. 

FAMILY  LIPABID^. 

Orgyia  antiqua,  Linn.  Perkins,  Vt.  Agr.  Rep.  1877:  148.  Packard, 
For.  Ins.  447. 

FAMILY  GEOMETRIDJB. 

Angerona  crocataria  (Fabr.).  Thomas,  111.  Rep.  7:  243.  Forbes,  111. 
Rep.  13:  81.  Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  348.  On  currant,  gooseberry 
and  strawberry  leaves. 


430  BUSH-FRUITS 

Endropea  armataria  (H.  Sch.).    Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  354.    Pack- 
ard, For.  Ins.  501— Mon.  Geom.  510.     On  leaves  of  maple,  birch, 

black  and  red  currant. 
JBiston  cognataria  (Guen.).    Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  280.     [Amphidasys 

cognataria,    Guen.    Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.   2:97.     Bowles,    Canad. 

Ent.  3:11.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  349.    Packard,  For.  Ins.  405.] 

A  somewhat  general  feeder. 
Microgonia    limbaria,    Haw.      [Nematocampa    filawientaria ,   Guen. 

French,  111.  Eep.  7:242.     Packard,  For.  Ins.  182.     Saunders,  Ins. 

Inj.  Frts.  167.]     On  leaves  of  currant,  strawberry,  oak  and  maple. 
Eustroma  prunata,   Linn.     [Petrophora  prunata,   Linn.     Edwards, 

Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  35:109.]     On  Ribes  in  Europe.    Introduced 

in  America. 
Prochoerodes  transversata  (Drury).  [JEJutrapela  transversata  (Drury). 

Packard,  For.  Ins.  181.]     On  maple,  currant,  oak  and  a  few  others. 
Tetrads  trianguliferata,  Pack.     French,  Canad.    Ent.    18:105.     On 

Ribes  aureum. 
Thamnonoma  quadrilinearia,  Pack.    Gillette,   Bull.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta. 

19:  23.     On  currant  and  gooseberry  leaves. 
Thamnonoma  flavicaria,  Pack.     Gillette,  Bull.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  19:  23. 

On  currant  and  gooseberry  leaves. 

FAMILY  NOCTUID^E. 

Hydrcecia  cataphracta  (Grt.).     [Gortyna  cataphracta,  Grt.     Fletcher, 

Ins.  Life  5:125.]     On  gooseberry  fruit;  unusual. 
Hydrcecia  nitela  (Guen.).     [Gortyna  nitella,  Guen.     Smith,  111.  Rep. 

7:112.     Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  1:110.     Boring  in  the  stems  of  many 

plants. 
Mamestra   picta,   Harris.      Lintner,  N.  Y.  Rep.  4:16.-5:206.     [Ce- 

ramicapic ta  (Harris).   French,  111.  Rep.  7:  226.  J    A  general  feeder; 

reported  on  currant. 
Noctua  clandestina  (Harris).     [Agrotis  clandestina, Harris.     French, 

111.  Rep.    7:95,    213.      Riley,  Rep.   U.  S.   Dept.    Agr.    1884:293. 

Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  108.]    A  general  feeder. 
Xylophasia  arctica  (Boisd.).     Smith,  Bull.  U.  S.  Mus.  44: 137.     [Ha- 

dena  arctica,  Boisd.    French,  111.  Rep.  7:96,  217.    Hadena  ampu- 

tatrix,  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  425.]    A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  ARCTIID-SB. 

Hyphantria   cunea,   Drury.    Packard,  For.   Ins.   244.     [Hyphantria 

textor,  Harris.    Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  71.]    The  Fall  Web-worm. 

A  general  feeder. 
Spilosoma  virginica  (Fabr.).    French,  111.  Rep.  7:80.     Packard,  For. 

Ins.  340,  489.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  271.    A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  SPHINGIDJE. 

Deilephila    lineata  (Fabr.).      Packard,   For.  Ins.    271.     A    general 
feeder. 


GROSELLE   INSECTS  431 

FAMILY  BOMBYCID^. 

Euproctis  chrysorrhoea  (Linn.).  Fernald  and  Kirkland,  Special  Bull. 
Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  1897.  A  general  feeder,  preferring  the 
pear. 

FAMILY  SATURNID^:. 

Automeris  io   (Fabr. ).     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  351.     \Hypercheria  io 

(Fabr.).     Packard,  For.  Ins.  394.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  209.] 

A  general  feeder. 
Samia  cecropia,  Linn.     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  356.     [Attacus  cecropia 

(Linn.).    Thomas,  111.  Rep.  10:126.    Platysamia  cecropia  (Linn.). 

Packard,  For.  Ins.  401.]    A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  LASIOCAMPID^;. 

Clisiocampa,  sp.  Schwarz,  Ins.  Life  4:75.  Reported  as  injuring 
currants  and  gooseberries  in  Utah,  by  webbing  up  the  leaves  to 
form  its  cocoon. 

FAMILY  NYMPHALIDJE. 

Easilarchia  astyanax  (Fabr.).     Packard,  For.  Ins.  128.     Comstock, 

Man.  Ins.  406.     [Limenitis  ursula,  Fabr.    French,  111.  Rep.  7:154. 

Middleton,  111.   Rep.   10:87.     Saunders,  Ins.   Inj.    Frts.   217.]     A 

general  feeder,  including  gooseberry. 
Polygonia   comma  (Harris).      Comstock,  Man.  Ins.   405.     [ Vanessa 

comma,  Harris,  Ins.   Inj.  Veg.  300  (Flint,  ed.).     Grapta  comma 

(Harris).     Packard,  For.  Ins.  241.    Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:433.]     On 

currant  and  hop. 
Polygonia  faunus  (Edw. ) .    Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  404.    [  Grapta  faunus, 

Edw.    French,  111.  Rep.  7:152.]     On  gooseberry,  beech  and  willow. 
Polygonia  progne   (Cramer).     Comstock,  Man.  Ins.  405.     [Vanessa 

progne,  Cramer.     Le  Baron,  111.  Rep.  1:  59.     Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg. 

301.    Grapta  progne  (Cramer).    Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:  428.    Packard, 

For.  Ins.  241.     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  346.]     On  Ribes  and  elm. 


Order  Coleoptera 
FAMILY  CERAMBYCID^. 

Hyperplatys  asperus   (Say.).     Gillette,  Bull.  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  11 : 494. 

In  stems  of  cottonwood,  chestnut  and  currant. 
Hyperplatys  maculatus,  Hald.     Cook,  Rep.  Mich.Hort.  Soc.  1890:109. 

Reported  as  a  new  currant  borer. 

FAMILY  CHBYSOMELIDJE. 

Doryphora  decemlineata,  Say.  Thomas,  111.  Rep.  6:162.  The  Potato 
Beetle;  known  to  eat  currant  leaves. 

Odontota  nervosa,  Panz.  [Odontota  rosea  (Web.).  Saunders,  Ins. 
Inj.  Frts.  120.  Hispa  rosea,  Web.  Harris,  Ins.  Inj.  Veg.  120. 
Uroplata  pallida,  Say.  Fitch,  N.  Y.  Rep.  3:434.]  Mining  in  the 
leaves  of  apple,  black  currant  and  other  plants. 


432  BUSH-FRUITS 

Systena  frontalis   (Fabr.).    Lintner,   N.  Y.  Rep.  9:343.     Saunders, 
Ins.  Inj.  Prts.  283.     On  grape  and  gooseberry  leaves. 

FAMILY  OTIORHYNCHID-S:. 

Epiccerus  imbricatus   (Say.).     Saunders,  Ins.  Inj.  Frts.  35.    Weed, 
Ins.  and  Insecticides  173.    A  general  feeder. 

FAMILY  CURCULIONID^E. 

Anthonomus    Tielvolus,    Boh.      [Anthonomus    rubidus,    Le    Conte. 
Fletcher,  Rep.  Can.  Expt.  Farms,  1887:36.] 

Order  Hymenoptera 
FAMILY  ANDRENID^:. 

Prosopis    affinis,    Smith.      Riley,    Amer.    Ent.    2:214-307.      Eggs 
deposited  in  pith  of  currant  stems. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

DISEASES    OF    THE    GEOSELLES 

The  number  of  fungi  known  to  attack  the  genus 
Bibes  is  very  large,  yet  comparatively  few  are  suffi- 
ciently destructive  to  demand  consideration,  from  an 
economic  stand -point.  The  one  which  is  best  known, 
and  which  has  created  far  more  discussion  than  any 
other  in  American  horticultural  literature,  is  the  goose- 
berry mildew.  This  disease  alone,  like  the  phylloxera 
of  the  grape,  has  forced  the  development  of  varieties 
from  native  species,  which  doubtless  would  not  have 
been  done  had  the  English  varieties  proved  successful 
in  this  climate.  The  following  list  includes  those 
diseases  which  are  most  important. 

THE    MOST    IMPORTANT    DISEASES 
GOOSEBERRY   MILDEW  (Fig.  78) 

Sphcerotheca  mors-uvce  (Schw.),  B.  and  C. — Order  Pyrenomycetero. 
Family  Perisporiacese. 

Halsted,  Rep.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1887:373  (Illus.).  Humphrey,  Rep.  Mass. 
Exp.  Sta.  10  :  240  (1892)  (Illus.).  Arthur,  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta. 
6:  349.  Beach,  West.  N.  Y.  Hort.  Soc.  37:  512.  Close,  N.  Y.  State  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Chiefly  found  on  the  English  gooseberry,  rarely  on  American 
sorts. 

As  before  stated,  this  is  one  of  the  most  widely  known  of  the 
diseases  affecting  the  genus  Kibes.  It  first  appears  on  the  young 
leaves  and  tender  tips  of  the  growing  shoots.  The  young  fruits 

BB  (433) 


434 


BUSH-FRUITS 


are  soon  attacked  in  the  same  way  and  partially  or  entirely 
checked  in  their  growth,  being  rendered  wholly  unfit  for  use  in 
most  cases.  It  first  appears  as  a  patch  of  cob  web -like  threads, 
which  soon  form  a  dense  mat  and  become  white  and  powdery 
from  the  development  of  white  conidial  or  summer  spores.  These 
are  produced  in  immense  numbers,  and  are  readily  blown  about 
by  the  wind,  to  contribute  to  the  further  spread  of  the  disease. 
A  few  weeks  later  the  winter  spores,  or  ascospores,  begin  to 


'Fig.  78.    Mildew  on  a  young  shoot. 

develop.  These  are  contained  within  chestnut -colored  perithecia, 
which  give  a  dirty  brown  appearance  to  the  affected  parts.  These 
spores  remain  over  winter  within  the  protecting  perithecium  and 
germinate  in  spring,  thereby  spreading  the  species  the  succeed- 
ing year. 

This  disease,  unlike  many  other  fungi,  seems  to  develop  best 
in  dry,  hot  climates,  and  for  this  reason  causes  much  more 
trouble  in  America  than  in  England.  It  is  less  serious  in  the 
northern  portions  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  than 
farther  south.  Many  English  varieties  or  their  seedlings  have 


GOOSEBERRY  MILDEW  435 

been  introduced  as  mildew  proof,  only  to  suffer  the  same  injury 
as  previous  sorts  after  a  few  years  of  general  trial.  The  Ameri- 
can varieties  are  not  wholly  exempt  from  its  attacks,  but  are 
much  less  susceptible,  and  seldom  suffer  serious  injury. 

Remedies. —  Numberless  remedies  against  the  disease  have 
been  suggested.  No  less  than  fifteen  of  these  have  come  under 
the  writer's  observation,  most  of  which  were  reported  successful 
in  greater  or  less  degree.  Among  them,  mulching  with  sea 
weed,  salt  hay,  green  grass,  tan  bark,  stones,  tin  cans,  boards, 
etc.,  is  most  frequently  mentioned.  This  does  aid  in  many 
cases,  as  it  helps  to  keep  the  soil  cool,  but  it  cannot  be  depended 
upon  to  afford  immunity.  There  is  now  a  perfectly  satisfactory 
remedy  known,  and  it  is  possible  for  anyone  who  is  willing  to 
give  the  matter  proper  attention  to  grow  the  English  goose- 
berries in  this  country.  Experiments  inaugurated  by  Professor 
Arthur,  while  connected  with  the  Geneva  (New  York)  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  since  carried  on  by  others,  have  proved  that 
potassium  sulphide  (liver  of  sulphur),  used  at  the  rate  of  half 
an  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water,  will  hold  this  disease  completely 
in  check.  Experiments  with  Bordeaux  mixture  indicate  that  it 
is  also  effective,  though  not  equal  to  potassium  sulphide.  The 
potassium  sulphide  is  cheap,  effective,  easily  applied,  and  does 
not  injure  the  plant  nor  render  the  fruit  poisonous,  hence  is  a 
very  satisfactory  remedy.  It  is  best  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
then  diluted  to  the  required  strength.  The  first  application 
should  be  made  when  the  leaves  begin  to  unfold,  and  be 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  to  three  weeks,  or  after  each  heavy 
rain  thereafter.  As  the  injury  to  the  plant  seriously  inter- 
feres with  its  growth,  thereby  lessening  the  succeeding  crop,  a 
thorough  treatment  just  after  the  fruit  is  gathered  is  likely  to 
prove  of  great  value. 

ANTHRACNOSE  f 
Glceosporium  Ribis  (Lib.),  Mont,  and  Desm. — Order  Melanconieee. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.,  3  :706.  Kirchner,  Krankheiten  und  Beschadigungen, 
339,  344.  Ellis  and  Everhart,  Jour.  Myc.,  1:110.  Dudley,  Bull.  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta.,15:196. 

On  Ribes  rubrum,  R.  nigrum,  R.  aureum,  R.  prostratum,  and 
others. 


436  BUSH-FRUITS 

The  characters  of  this  disease  are  less  prominent  than  those  of 
the  gooseberry  mildew,  and  it  has  attracted  far  less  attention. 
The  currant  crop  suffers  serious  injury  by  the  premature  falling  of 
the  leaves,  which  may  be  due  to  several  species  of  fungi,  this 
being  one  of  them.  This  defoliation  not  only  injures  the  fruit 
then  on  the  bushes  by  preventing  its  proper  development,  but 
also  materially  shortens  the  crop  of  the  succeeding  year  by  pre- 
venting the  proper  completion  of  wood  growth. 

The  spots  appear  on  the  upper  surface  but  within  the  tissues 
of  the  leaves,  in  June  or  early  in  July.  The  infected  parts  are 
dull  brown  in  color,  the  leaves  soon  turn  yellow  and  fall,  so  that 
the  bushes  may  be  wholly  denuded  by  the  middle  of  August. 

Remedies. — Definite  reports  from  spraying  for  this  particular 
disease  are  not  at  hand,  but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  overcome  all  the 
diseases  which  cause  the  premature  fall  of  currant  leaves. 


THE  CURRANT  TUBERCLE 

Tulercularia     vulgaris,     Tode.— Order     HyphomycetesB.       Family 
Tuberculariese. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.,  44:638.      Durand,  Bull.    Cornell    Univ.  Exp.  Sta., 
125  :23-38.    For  synonymy,  see  Sacc.,  1.  c. 

On  living  curr&nt  stems  and  many  kinds  of  dead  wood. 

This  is  the  imperfect  form  of  a  fungus  which  in  its  perfect 
stage  is  known  under  the  name  Nectria  cinndbarina  (Tode),  Fr. 
It  is  very  common  upon  dead  and  decaying  wood  of  different 
kinds.  Recently  it  has  proved  itself  an  injurious  parasite  upon 
living  currant  bushes  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Its  presence 
is  first  manifest  by  wilting  of  the  leaves  and  premature  coloring 
of  the  fruit.  The  clusters  are  usually  small  and  straggling,  and 
both  fruit  and  leaves  soon  shrivel  and  fall.  This  is  m  turn  fol- 
lowed by  the  death  of  the  barren  canes.  In  some  eases  the  entire 
plant  dies;  in  others,  some  canes  may  partially  escape.  Some- 
times the  plants  die  even  before  the  leaves  unfold. 

Remedies. — This  threatens  to  be  a  difficult  enemy  to  fight.     As 


THE    CURRANT   TUBERCLE 


437 


with  the  red  rust  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry,  there  is  a  per- 
ennial mycelium,  living  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  cure.  To  dig  and  burn  the  affected  bush  at  once  is 
the  only  sure  preventive  against  further  spread.  Mr.  Durand 
finds*  that  the  mycelium  may  show  no  indication  of  its  presence 


HB 


"I 


Fig.  79.    Leaf-spot. 

until  long  after  entering  the  plant,  and  that  the  disease  may 
therefore  be  transmitted  in  apparently  healthy  cuttings.  This, 
being  true,  it  follows  that  cuttings  should  not  be  used  from  a 
field  known  to  be  infected.  Since  the  fungus  develops  so  readily 
in  dead  wood,  the  refuse  from  pruning  should  not  be  left  in  the  field. 


*Loc.  cit. 


438  BUSH-FRUITS 


CURRANT  LEAF -SPOT  (Fig.  79) 

Septoria  RiUs,  Desm.— Order    Spheeropsideae.      Family    Sphserio- 
idese. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.,  3  :491.  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.,  38  :97.  Martin, 
Jour.  Myc.,  3  :73.  Pammel,  Bulls.  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.,  13  :45,  67.— 
17  : 420.— 30  :289. 

On  Ribes  rubrum  and  R.  nigrum. 

This  disease  produces  a  brown  spotted  appearance  of  the 
leaves,  followed  by  their  premature  fall. 

Professor  Pammel 's  experiments  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Sta- 
tion have  demonstrated  conclusively  that  it  can  be  controlled  and 
the  foliage  retained  by  thorough  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Five  sprayings,  beginning  May  10  and  ending  July  22,  proved 
wholly  effective. 

Cercospora     angulata,     Wint. — Order     Hyphomycetese.        Family 
DematieaB. 

Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.,  4  :  459.  Winter,  Jour.  Myc.,  1  :  124.  Pammel,  Bull, 
la.  Exp.  Sta..  13  :  45.— 17  :  420. 

Professor  Pammel  reports  this  species  on  both  red  and  black 
currants,  associated  with  Septoria  Ribis,  and  yielding  to  the  same 
treatment. 

GOOSEBERRY   CLUSTER-CUP 

Mtidium  grossularice,  Schum. — Order  Uredinese. 

Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.,7  :792.     Humphrey,  Rep.  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.,  10  (1892) :241. 

On  leaves  and  fruit  of  Ribes  grossularice,  R.  rubrum,  R.  alpi- 
num,  R.  nigrum,  R.  aureum  and  R.  rotundifolium. 

This  disease  varies  much  in  frequency.  Ordinarily  it  causes  no 
damage,  but  occasionally  seems  to  develop  with  unusual  rapidity, 
and  work  serious  injury.  It  is  difficult  to  combat,  for  when  the 
cluster-cups  appear  so  that  the  disease  is  noticed,  the  harm  for 
that  year  is  already  done.  Picking  off  and  destroying  the  in- 
fected leaves  will  tend  to  prevent  damage  the  succeeding  year, 
but  this  is  hardly  necessary  and  seldom  practicable.  Perhaps 
spraying  for  the  gooseberry  mildew  may  prevent  the  earliest 
infection. 


FUNGI  FOUND   ON  GROSELLES  439 


OTHER    INJURIOUS    FUNGI 

Many  other  fungi  have  been  found  on  plants  of 
this  genus.  Some  of  these  may  at  times  prove  to  be 
real  enemies,  but  most  of  them  can  do  little  injury. 
A  large  number  have  been  reported  from  Europe,  but 
unless  recorded  as  occurring  in  North  America,  are 
excluded  from  this  list,  though  many  of  them  will 
doubtless  appear  in  this  country  sooner  or  later. 

Order   Pyrenomycetece 
FAMILY  PERISPORIACEJE. 

Sphcerotheca  Castagnei,  Lev.  Saccardo,  Syll.  Fung.  1:4.  Ellis  and 
Everhart,  Pyren.  8.  Anderson,  Jour.  Myc.  5:83.  On  Ribes 
Americanum. 

Phyllactinia  suffulta  (Reb.)  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:5.  Ell.  and  Ev. 
Pyren.  20.  On  Ribes  and  many  other  plants. 

Micro sphtera  Grossularice  (Wallr.),  Lev.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:12. 
Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  24.  Anderson,  Jour.  Myc.  5:194.  Kirchner, 
Pflanzenkrankheiten  338.  [Alphitomorpha  penicillata  Grossu- 
larice, Wallr.]  On  R.  rotundifolium,  JR.  Americanum  and  R. 
nig  rum. 

Capnodium  salicinum  (A.  and  S.),  Mont.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:73. 
Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  49.  Kirchner,  Pflanzenkrankheiten  338,  410, 
342.  On  gooseberry  leaves,  willows,  poplars,  etc. 

FAMILY  SPH^RIACE^E. 

Valsa  ribesia,  Karst.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:117.     Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren. 

466.     [  Valsa  agnostica,  Cooke  and  Harkness.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung. 

9:450.]     On  branches  of  Ribes  in  California. 
Valsa    ribicola,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  1894:340.     Sacc.  Syll. 

Fung.  11:273.     On  dead  branches  of  R.  aureum. 
Eutypa  subcutanea  (Wahl.).    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:165.    On  Ribes  and 

willow. 
Eutypa  flavo-virescens  (Hoffm.),  Tul.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  1:172.     On 

wood  and  bark  of  Ribes  and  many  other  genera. 
Sphcerella    Grossularice    (Fr.),    Auersw.      Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.  1:486. 

Ell.  and   Ev.  Pyren.  266.     Pammel,  Bull.  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  13:70. 

On  R.  nigrum  and  R.  Grossularia. 
JDiaporthe    ( Chore  state)    strumella    (Fr. ),    Fuck.    Symb.    Myc.    205. 

Sacc.   Syll.  Fung.  1:613.     Ell.    and   Ev.    Pyren.   425.      On   dead 

stems  of  different  species  of  Ribes. 


440  BUSH-FRUITS 

Diaporthe   (Chorostate)   concrescens    (Schw.),   Cooke.      Sacc.    Syll. 

Fung.  9:703.      Ell.  and   Ev.   Pyren.  445.     [Sphceria  concrescens, 

Schw.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:  378.]     On  dead  stems  of  Ribes  aureum. 
Leptosphceria  vagabunda,    Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    2:31.      Ell.   and   Ev. 

Pyren.  358.     On  dead  wood  of  Ribes  and  all  sorts  of  shrubs  and 

trees. 

Melanomma  pulvis-pyrius   (Pers.).     Fuck.  Symb.   Myc.   160.     Sacc. 
'Syll.  Fung.  2:98.    Ell.   and  Ev.  Pyren.  181.     On  many  kinds  of 

wood  and  bark.  , 

Cucurbitaria  Ribis,  Niessl.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:322.     Ell.  and  Ev. 

Pyren.  242.     On  decorticated  stems  of  Ribes. 
Fenestella  vestita  (Fr.).     Sacc.  Syll.   Fung.    2:329.      Ell.    and   Ev. 

Pyren.  544.     On  dead  branches  of  Ribes  and  many  other  genera. 
Sphceria  ribesia,  Schw.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:370.     [This  is  Diatry- 

pella  ribesia  (Schw.).     Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  591.]     On  dead  stems 

of  Ribes  rubrum. 

Sphceria  recondita,  Schw.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:376.  [This  is  Dia- 
porthe recondita  (Schw.).  Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  448.]  On  dead 

stems  of  JR.  Americanum. 
Sphceria  penicillata,  Schw.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:404.     Ell.  and  Ev. 

Pyren.  748.     On  fallen  branches  of  R.  aureum. 

FAMILY  HYPOCREACE.^ 

Nectria  cinnabarina  (Tode),  Fr.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:  479.  Ell.  and 
Ev.  Pyren.  93.  Durand,  Bull.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.  125:  23-38. 
On  dead  branches  of  many  kinds  of  shrubs  and  trees.  [This  is 
the  perfect  stage  of  Tubercularia  vulgaris,  Tode,  which  see.] 

Nectria  Ribis  (Tode),  Rabenh.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:480.  Ell.  and 
Ev.  Jour.  Myc.  2 :  79.  On  branches  of  currant  and  gooseberry. 

Pleonectria  Berolinensis ,  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:  559.  Ell.  and  Ev.  Jour- 
Myc.  2:123.— Pyren.  115.  Durand,  Bull.  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta- 
125 :  34-37.  On  dead  stems  of  Ribes. 

FAMILY  DOTHIDEACE^. 

Plowrightia   ribesia    (Pers.).     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  2:635.      [Dothidea 

ribesia  (Pers.),  Fr.     Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  611.]     On  dry  stems  of 

various  species  of  Ribes. 
Homostegia  Kelseyi,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  1890:248.     Sacc. 

Syll.  Fung.  9:1050.      Ell.  and  Ev.  Pyren.  616.     On  dead  stems  of 

JR.  rotundifolium . 


Order    Sphceropsidece 
FAMILY  SPH^ERIOIDE^E. 

Phyllosticta  Grossularice,  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:17.  Kirchner,  Pflanzen- 
krankheiten,  339,425.  Martin,  Jour.  Myc.  2:15.  On  gooseberry 
leaves. 


FUNGI  FOUND    ON  GROSELLES  441 

Phoma  hyalina  (B.  and  C.).     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:88.     [Sphceropsis 

hyalina,  B.  and  C.     N.  A.  F.  409.]     On  branches  of  R.  tubrum, 

Viburnum  dentatum,  and  Fraxinus  Americana. 
Asteroma   ribicolum   Ell.    and   Ev.  .  Jour.    Myc.    5:148.     Sacc.    Syll. 

Fung.  10:  219.     On  living  leaves  of  R.  Americanum. 
Sphceropsis    ribicola,    C.    and   Ell.     Sacc.    Syll.    Fung.    10:255.     On 

branches  of  Ribes. 
Diplodia  Dearnessii,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  1891:79.     Sacc. 

Syll.  Fung.  10:  279.     On  decorticated  twigs  of  Ribes. 
Septoria  aurea,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.   Acad.  1893:163.     [Septoria 

aurea  destruans,  Ell.  and  Ev.  1.  c.    Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  11:  541.]    On 

leaves  of  R.  aureum. 
Rhabdospora  ribicola  (B.  and  C.).     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  3:  579.     Martin, 

Jour.  Myc.  3:  90.     [Septoria  ribicola,  B.  and  C.     N.  A.  F.  444  bis.] 

On  whitened  stems  of  R.  rotundi folium. 

Order  Melanconiece 

Glaosporium    ribicolum,    Ell.  and   Ev.   Proc.   Phil.  Acad.  1893:167. 

Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  11 :  563.     On  fruit  of  the  English  gooseberry. 
Marsonia   ribicola,   Ell.    and  Ev.   Erythea,  201.     Sacc.  Syll.   Fung. 

11:574.     On  lea^s  of  R.  aureum. 

Order  Hyphomycetew 
FAMILY  DEMATIE^B. 

Coniosporium    Fumago    (Schw.).     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:242.     [Fusi- 

dium  Fumago,  Schw.     Syn.  Am.  bor.  2995.  ]     On  leaves  of  Ribes. 
Cladosporium   cubisporum,    B.  and  C.      N.  A.  F.    652.      Sacc.    Syll. 

Fung.  4 :  355.     On  twigs  of  Ribes. 
Cercospora  ribicola,  Ell.  and  Ev.  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  1894:379.     Sacc. 

Syll.  Fung.  11:  626.     On  leaves  of  Ribes  sanguineum. 
Stemphylium   macrosporoideum    (B,    and    Br. ).      Sacc.    Syll.    Fung. 

4:519.     On  dead  stems  of  Ribes  and  Acer. 

FAMILY  STILBE^E. 

Graphiothecium  parasiticum,  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:624.  On  weak  or 
decaying  leaves  of  Ribes  and  other  plants. 

FAMILY  TUBERCULARIE^E. 

Tubercularia  confluens,  Pers.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  4:641.  Farlow  and 
Seymour,  Host.  Ind.  43.  On  Ribes  and  other  woody  plants. 

Order    Hymenomycetece 
FAMILY  POLYPORE.E. 

Fomes  Ribis  (Schum.),  Fr.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  6:184.  [Polyporus 
Ribis  (Schum.).  Kirchner,  Pflanzenkrankheiten,  341  and  403.] 
On  stems  of  gooseberry  and  currant. 


442  BUSH-FRUITS 

FAMILY,  THELEPHORE^E. 

Thelephora  ribesina,  Fr.  (?).     Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind.  43. 

On  Ribes. 
Corticium  lacteum,  Fr.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  6:  610.     On  wood  and  bark 

of  different  plants. 
Corticium  incarnatum  (Pers.),  Fr.     Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  6:625.     Farlow 

and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind.   200.     On  bark  and  wood  of   different 

plants. 

Order  Phycomycetece 
FAMILY  PERONOSPORACE^. 

Plasmopora  ribicola  (Schroet. ),  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:243.  [Perono- 
spora  ribicola,  Schroet.  Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind.  200. 
Kirchner,  Pflanzenkrankheiten,  343,  379.]  On  JR.  oxyacanthoides 
and  R.  rubrum. 

Order    Uredinece 

Melampsora  epitea  (Kunze  and  Schm.),  Thiim.  Kirchner,  Pflanzen- 
krankheiten, 339,  399.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:  588.  Plowright,  Brit. 
Ured.  and  Ust.  239.  On  leaves  and  fruit  of  currant  and  goose- 
berry. • 

Puccinia  pulchella,  Peck,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Mus.  25:111.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung. 
7:701.  On  leaves  of  R.  prostratum. 

Uredo  (Cceoma)confluens  (Pers.),  Schroet.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:864. 
Plowright,  Brit.  Ured.  and  Ust.  260.  [Cceoma  Ribis-alpini,  Wint. 
Tracy  and  Galloway,  Jour.  Myc.  4:  61.  Uredo  ribicola,  C.  and  E. 
Grev.  6:  86.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  7:  859.  Uredo  Jonesii,  Peck,  Bull. 
Torr.  Bot.  Club  12 : 36.  ]  On  R.  aureum  in  America  and  other 
species  in  Europe. 

Order   Discomycetece 
FAMILY  DERMATEJE. 

Godronia  Urceolus,  A.  and  S.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:  601.  Onbranches 
of  Ribes  and  other  plants. 

FAMILY  BULGARIEJE. 

Orbilia  vinosa  (A.  and  S.),  Karst.  Sacc.  Syll.  Fung.  8:622.  [Pe- 
ziza  vinosa,  A.  and  S.  Farlow  and  Seymour,  Host.  Ind.  43.]  On 
fallen  branches  of  various  trees  and  shrubs. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THE  BOTANY  OF  THE  GROSELLES 

In  order  that  the  student  may  have  the  fnll  range  of 
the  subject  in  mind,  an  attempt  is  here  made  to  classify 
and  describe  all  the  species  of  Eibes  which  are  native  to 
the  United  States  and  Canada  or  which  are  cultivated 
here.  If  so  great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  amelio- 
ration of  a  very  few  species,  what  may  not  the  future 
hold  for  the  plant -breeder! 

In  the  following  account  I  have  attempted  to  give  my 
impressions  of  the  botanical  relationship  of  the  plants 
of  the  genus.  The  view  obtained  has  of  necessity  been 
limited  and  doubtless  oftentimes  distorted.  It  has  been 
confined  for  the  most  part  to  herbarium  material,  and 
this,  useful  as  it  is  for  purposes  of  study,  will  some- 
times mislead.  In  some  cases  not  even  this  source  of 
aid  was  available.  More  complete  study  will  doubtless 
change  many  of  the  opinions  expressed,  dropping  some 
forms  here  classed  as  species  and  admitting  others  not 
here  recognized.  In  general  I  have  little  sympathy  with 
the  present  tendency  to  accept  species  which  are  based 
on  slight  differences,  and  I  have  endeavored  to  avoid 
recognizing  such,  if  the  material  and  information  at 
hand  would  admit.  Yet  as  the  study  has  progressed,  I 
have  felt  like  attaching  less  and  less  importance  to  the 
question  of  species.  The  oneness  of  t-he  vegetable  king- 

(443) 


444  BUSH-FRUITS 

dom  has  become  more  and  more  apparent.  It  is  easy  to 
describe  species  so  long  as  single  specimens  from  widely 
different  localities  are  available,  but  not  easy  when  the 
material  is  more  abundant,  is  drawn  from  intermediate 
localities,  and  represents  more  varying  forms.  Then  the 
transitions  from  east  to  west,  from  north  to  south,  from 
valley  to  mountain -top  and  from  species  to  species  be- 
come more  apparent.  At  best  it  is  but  passing  in 
review  a  brief  section  of  Nature's  progressive  line  of 
march,  and  it  matters  little  where  our  lines  of  division 
are  drawn.  If  the  botanist  refuses  to  enter  the  garden 
to  see  the  work  of  evolution  in  progress,  he  may  discover 
the  same  process  by  a  careful  study  of  a  single  group  of 
plants  like  the  one  in  question. 

A  single  phytogeographical  hint  brought  out  by  this 
study  may  be  of  interest.  In  the  genus  Ribes  the  flow- 
ers are  for  the  most  part  white  and  rather  inconspicuous 
throughout  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country  and  on 
the  Plains,  with  perhaps  a  slight  tinge  of  color  along  the 
eastern  coast.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains  white  but 
somewhat  larger  flowers  are  common,  while  toward  the 
northwest  coast  large  purple  flowers  become  the  rule. 
This  color  tendency  may  be  only  accidental  with  this 
genus,  for  I  find  no  mention  of  such  a  tendency  among 
other  plants,  but  Professor  Lawrence  Bruner  tells  me 
that  he  has  noticed  a  similar  color  variation  in  the 
wings  of  grasshoppers. 

RIBES,     LINN.— CURRANT— GOOSEBERRY 

Shrubs  with  simple,  alternate,  palmately  veined  leaves,  some- 
times with  narrow  stipules  united  with  the  base  of  the  petiole. 


KEY   TO    THE    GROSELLES  445 

Flowers  5 -parted,  except  in  a  single  species,  in  which  they  are 
commonly  4 -parted.  Calyx  tube  coherent  with  the  ovary,  often 
extending  beyond  it;  lobes  commonly  colored  like  the  petals. 
Petals  small,  borne  on  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  alternating  with  the 
stamens.  Ovary  1-celled,  with  2  parietal  placentae,  and  2  distinct 
or  united  styles.  Fruit  a  berry,  crowned  with  the  shriveled  re- 
mains of  the  calyx. 

Name  of  uncertain  origin,  thought  by  some  to  be  from  riebs,  a 
German  name  used  for  the  currant. 

The  genus  is  primarily  a  North  American  one.  Of  the  thirty 
species  mentioned  by  Dippel,*  sixteen  are  North  American,  eleven 
are  natives  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  one  is  found  in  both, 
while  two  to  which  he  gives  specific  names  are  probably  hybrids. 
While  of  especial  importance  as  a  fruit -producing  genus,  some  of 
its  species  have  decided  value  as  ornamentals. 

A.  Stems  with  1-3  thorns   below  the  clusters  of  leaves,   often 
with  numerous  scattered  prickles  on  the  branches,  some- 
times  upon  the  berry  also.     Leaves  plaited    in  the  bud. 
(Gooseberries.) 
B.  Flowers  red  and  showy,  mostly  4 -parted;  stamens  long, 

exserted;  berry  small,  currant-like.     No.  1. 
BB.  Flowers   5-parted;    calyx  mostly  recurved  or  reflexed  at 
flowering  time,  later  erect;    stamens  more   or    less  or 
not  at  all  exserted.     Berry  many  seeded, 
c.  Calyx  tube  campanulate  or  cylindraceous ;    peduncles 

few- flowered. 
D.  Anthers    sagittate,  mucronate- pointed.     Nos.  2,  3, 

4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 
DD.  Anthers  oval  or  roundish,  blunt. 

E.  Stamens  much  longer  than  the  petals 

p.  Flowers  conspicuous;  calyx  lobes  broad  and 

showy,  dark  purple -red.     No.  11. 
FF.  Flowers    inconspicuous;     calyx   lobes  small 
and    slender,    white,     greenish    white,    or 
sometimes    purplish.     Nos.  12,  13,  14,  15, 
16. 
EE.  Stamens  little  or  no  longer  than  the  petals. 

F.  Ovary  and  berry  unarmed  and  glabrous.     Nos. 

17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23. 

FF.  Ovary  and  berry  armed  with  prickles,  or  rough 
and  glandular  hairy.     Nos.  24,  25,  26,  27.  f 

*  Handbuch  der  Laubholzkunde  3  -.281-308. 


446 


BUSH-FRUITS 


cc.  Calyx    tube    saucer -shaped,     expanding    immediately 

above     the     ovary;      peduncles     racemosely     5-15 

flowered;     berry    small,    currant-like,    beset    with 

glandular -tipped  hairs.     Nos.  28,  29. 

AA.  Thornless  and  prickless ;  leaves  plaited  in  the  bud ;  racemes 

few  to  many -flowered;  stamens  short.     (Currants.) 
B.  Calyx  dilated  immediately  above  the  ovary. 

c.  Leaves  without  resinous  dots  beneath.     Nos.  30,  31, 

32,  33,  34. 
cc.  Leaves  bearing  resinous  dots  on  the  under  surface. 

Nos.  35,  36,  37,  38,  39. 

BB.  Calyx  prolonged  above  the  ovary    into  a  campanulate  or 
cylindrical  tube, 
c.  Flowers    in    leafy    clusters,    somewhat     corymb-like; 

leaves  with  rounded  lobes.     Nos.  40,  41. 
cc.  Flowers  in  leafless  racemes.     Nos.  42,  43,  44,  45,  46, 

47,  48. 

AAA.  Thornless  and  prickless ;  leaves  convolute  in  the  bud ;  racemes 
several -flowered;  calyx  tube  much  elongated.     No.  50. 


Fig.  80.    Ribes  speciosum  (X%). 


1.  EIBES       SPECIOSUM,    Pursh.        Fuchsia-flowered      Gooseberry. 

(Fig.  80.) 

Stem  thick  and  woody,  6-10  feet  (2-3  meters)  high,  the 
smaller  branches  covered  with  fine  prickles  and  glandular -tipped 
hairs ;  thorns  long  and  slender,  commonly  in  threes :  leaves  small, 


THE  FUCHSIA-FLOWERED)   GOOSEBERRY        447 

thick  and  shining,  nearly  evergreen  in  its  native  habitat,  three - 
lobed,  with  coarse  rounded  serrations,  roundish  or  wedge-shaped 
at  base.  Flowers  borne  on  slender,  hanging  peduncles,  2-4  on 
each,  drooping,  petiole  and  calyx  tube  densely  covered  with  short 
grandular  tipped  hairs;  calyx  cylindraceous  %-%  of  an 
inch  (12-20  mm.)  long;  stamens  extending  %  of  an  inch 
(20  mm.)  beyond  the  calyx,  both  bright  red,  giving  some 
resemblance  to  a  fuchsia;  anthers  very  short,  berry  prickly,  dry, 
few  seeded. 

Original  distribution. — The  Pacific  coast  region,  extending  from 
California  into  British  Columbia. 

This  species  is  distinct  from  all  other  members  of  the  genus, 
owing  to  its  long  red  flowers.  It  seems  to  have  renounced  the 
quiet  dress  of  its  ancestors  and  to  have  become  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  display  so  common  among  plants  in  the  region  of  the 
Golden  Gate.  In  spite  of  its  beauty  it  has  received  little  recog- 
nition as  an  ornamental.  It  deserves  a  place  in  ornamental  col- 
lections wherever  it  will  thrive. 

2.  R.  MENZIESII,  Pursh.     (Fig.  81.) 

Stems  5-10  feet  (15-30  decimeters)  high,  branches  naked 
or  densely  covered  with  fine  slender  bristles,  grandular-tipped 
when  young,  young  twigs  and  petioles  also  pubescent;  thorns 
usually  triple,  very  long  and  slender  pointed,  the  central  one 
reaching  %  of  an  inch  (20  mm.)  in  length.  Leaves  soft  pubes- 
cent beneath,  seldom  or  never  viscid,  3-5  lobed,  the  lobes  crenu- 
late  toothed  and  incised;  peduncles  1-2  flowered;  calyx  purplish 
red,  %-/£  inch  (10-13  mm. )  long,  pubescent  on  the  outside,  its 
lobes  exceeding  the  funnel-shaped  tube,  recurved  or  spreading  at 
maturity;  petals  thickish,  truncate  involute,  whitish,  reaching 
the  base  of  the  white  anthers;  berry  %  of  an  inch  (10  mm.)  in 
diameter,  densely  covered  with  long  and  slender  straw-colored 
bristles. 

Distribution. — Northern  California  and  Oregon. 

The  species  has  little  to  recommend  it  for  cultivation.  The 
fruit,  though  of  good  size,  is  said  to  be  dry,  and  is  too  prickly  to 
be  of  value. 

3.  K.  SUBVESTITUM,  Hook.  &  Arn.     (Fig.  82.) 

Tall,  open  shrub,  5-10  feet  (15-30  decimeters)  high, 
branches  rather  stiff  and  upright,  sparsely  beset  with  slender 
prickles  and  short  glandular -tipped  hairs,  thorns  triple  or  even 
quadruple,  long  and  slender;  leaves  roundish,  less  deeply  lobed 
than  in  the  preceding  species,  bearing  short  stalked  glands  both 


Fig.  81.    Ribes  Menziesii  (X%). 


WESTERN   GOOSEBERRIES 


449 


on  the  upper  and  under  surface,  very  viscid  and  heavy  scented ; 
peduncles  1-3  flowered;  calyx  tube  broadly  companulate,  lobes 
purple-red,  narrow,  twice  as  long  as  the  tube,  reflexed  in  flower; 


Fig.  82.    Ribes  subvestitum  (X%). 


petals  white,  waxy,  truncate,  entire ;  strongly  involute ;  stamens 
well  exserted;  anthers  sagittate,  minutely  pubescent;  berry  large, 
dark  red,  insipid,  very  densely  covered  with  short  grandular- 
tipped  prickles  or  hairs,  which  extend  to  the  pedicels;  gummy, 
with  a  strong  resinous  odor. 

Common  in  the  coast  ranges  of  California. 

This  is  not  B.  subvestitum,  Hook.,  as  figured  in  Bot.  Mag.  t. 
4931.  The  species  has  little  interest  from  a  horticultural  stand- 
point. 

CC 


450  BUSH-FRUITS 

4.  B.  AMARUM,  McClatchie. 

"Shrub  3-8  feet  (1-3  meters)  high,  rigid  stems  and  branches 
beset  with  yellowish  brown  (commonly  triple)  spines,  often 
setose -hispid;  leaves,  inflorescence  and  young  branches  glandular- 
pubescent  and  bitterish  fragrant,  leaves  thin,  %-!%"  inches  (15- 
40  mm.)  broad,  3-5  lobed  and  incised;  peduncles  1-  or  2-flowered, 
3-5  lines  (6-12  mm.)  long;  pedicels  each  with  a  round-ovate 
2-4  (usually  3)  lobed  bract,  about  three  lines  (6  mm.)  long; 
flowers  3-4  inches  long,  calyx-tube  oblong -campanulate,  3  lines 
(6  mm.)  long,  segments  purplish  red,  reflexed,  4  lines  (8  mm.) 
long,  tips  greenish,  especially  on  back;  petals  pinkish  white, 
red-streaked  near  base  on  inside,  2  lines  (4  ram.)  long,  strongly 
involute,  suborbicular  when  flattened  out,  rounded  and  erose- 
toothed  at  summit;  pinkish  filaments  equaling  or  slightly  exceed- 
ing1 the  petals;  anthers  sagittate,  ovate-oblong,  mucronate, 
purplish,  ovary  densely  grandular  hairy ;  mature  berry  /£-%  inch 
(12-20  mm.)  in  diameter,  densely  covered  with  glandular  bristles 
which  produce  a  very  bitter  secretion;  pulp  sweet." — McClatchie, 
Erythea,  2,  79. 

This  is  very  closely  related  to  B.  subvestitum,  Hook.  &  Arn. 
Described  from  southern  California.     Found  in  shaded  canons. 

5.  B.  CALIFORNICUM,  Hook.  &  Arn.     (Fig.  83.) 

Shrub  2-4  feet  (6-12  decimeters)  high,  with  rigid,  zigzag, 
glabrqus  branches,  thorns  slender,  brownish  red  like  the  branches, 
mostly  single;  leaves  small,  %  inch  (12  mm.)  in  diameter,  3-5 
lobed,  roundish,  not  viscid  nor  heavy  scented,  glabrous  when 
mature;  peduncles  short,  1-3  flowered,  pedicels  short,  each  with 
a  persistent,  small,  round-ovate  bract  at  the  base;  calyx  lobes 
lurid  purple,  petals  white,  thick,  strongly  involute,  truncate  and 
irregularly  toothed  at  summit,  reaching  the  base  of  the  anthers; 
anthers  ovate-oblong,  purple-red,  prominent;  ovary  glandular- 
hispid;  berry  large,  prickly,  not  gummy. 

Found  in  California  on  bleak  hills,  blooming  earlier  than 
other  species,  with  a  pleasant  flowery  odor. 

G.  E.  EOEZLI,  Eegel.* 

Low,  much-branched  shrub,  branches  glabrous,  twigs  pubes- 
cent; leaves,  3-5  lobed,  glabrous  on  both  sides,  lobes  rounded, 
doubly  and  coarsely  dento-crenate  toward  the  apex,  petiole 
pubescent,  setose -ciliate  at  the  base;  spines  1-3,  slender,  spread- 
ing; peduncles  1-  to  2-flowered,  puberulent,  pedicels  subtended 
by  a  broad  truncate  bract,  which  is  pubescent  at  the  margins, 

*Gartenflora  1879  :  226.    Tafel  982. 


WESTERN    GOOSEBERRIES 


451 


Pig.  83.    Bibes  Calif ornicum  CX%). 


Fig.  84.    Bibes  Victoria  (X%). 


enwrapping  the  pedicel;  ovary  and  calyx-tube  densely  pubes- 
cent but  not  glandular;  calyx  reddish  brown,  tube  sub-cylindri- 
cal, longer  than  the  ovary;  lobes  broad-oblong,  obtuse,  recurved 
in  flower,  about  as  long  as  the  tube;  petals  white,  oblong,  the 
margins  involute,  truncate,  dentate  at  the  apex,  one-third  as 
long  as  the  calyx  lobes ;  filaments  exceeding  the  petals,  glabrous ; 


452  BUSH-FRUITS 

anthers  elliptical -oblong,  very  glabrous  and  smooth,  dorsal  base 
sagittate,  ventral  base  rounded;  style  much  longer  than  the 
stamens,  2-cleft;  leaves  2-2^  centimeters  in  diameter, 
flowers  nodding;  calyx,  including  ovary,  about  1%  centimeters 
long,  minutely  pubescent. 

Northwestern  North  America. 

The  original  description  and  figure  show  this  to  be  very  close 
to  E.  Calif ornicum;  perhaps  it  should  be  referred  to  that  species. 

7.  E.  AMICTUM,  Greene. 

Shrub  with  the  aspect  of  E.  Menziesii;  branches  upright, 
smooth,  straight  or  zigzag,  thorns  mostly  triple,  shorter  than  in 
E.  Menziesii;  leaves  small,  %-l  inch  (12-25  cm.)  in  diame- 
ter; peduncles  1-  or  2 -flowered;  pedicels  short,  subtended  by 
large,  deciduous,  lobed  bracts,  which  envelop  the  ovary;  flowers 
dark  purple,  %-%  inch  (10-20  mm.)  long,  tube  narrowly 
companulate,  much  longer  than  in  E.  Menziesii,  lobes  reflexed  in 
flower,  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate,  exceeding  the  sagittate, 
whitish  anthers;  petals  white  or  pinkish,  %  inch  (3  mm.)  long; 
ovary  ciliate- prickly;  berry  prickly  but  not  densely  so. 

California  and  Oregon.     Closely  related  to  E.  Calif  ornicum. 

If  attractive  in  habit  and  adapted  to  cultivation,  this  would 
be  a  desirable  flowering  shrub.  Its  flowers  are  scarcely  less 
striking  than  those  of  E.  speciosum. 

8.  E.  WILSON: ANUM,  Greene.* 

"Eigid  and  low  shrub,  with  smooth  branchlets  and  1-3 
spines  at  each  node;  growing  parts  and  leaves  more  or  less 
villous  with  a  short  pubescence;  leaves  small,  rounded,  5-lobed, 
the  lobes  and  teeth  acute ;  peduncles  rather  slender,  mostly 
3-flowered;  bracts  persistent,  broadly  ovate,  acuminate-cuspidate, 
villous ;  ovary  short -prickly,  scarcely  villous ;  calyx  dark  red, 
the  cylindric  or  slightly  funnel-form  tube  3  lines  (6  mm.)  long; 
segments  acute,  about  as  long;  petals  scarcely  a  line  long, 
thinnish  white  with  red  veins,  cuneate- quadrate,  nearly  truncate 
and  scarcely  erose  at  apex,  and  with  narrow  and  abruptly  inflexed 
margins;  filaments  scarcely  equalling  the  petals;  anthers  con- 
nivent,  with  prominent  cusp  bent  outwards." 

This  species  was  founded  on  a  single  specimen  Deceived  and 
grown  at  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Berkeley,  Cal.  I  have  not  seen 
specimens.  It  was  first  referred  to  E .  amictum  by  its  author  in 
Flora  Franciscana,  hence  must  be  very  similar  to  that  species. 

*Erythea  3  :70. 


WESTERN    GOOSEBERRIES  453 

9.  B.  VICTORIS,  Greene.     (Fig.  84.) 

Shrub  5  feet  (15  decimeters)  high,  branches  covered  with  short, 
slender  prickles  and  glandular -tipped  hairs;  leaves  and  young 
twigs  pubescent  and  viscid,  pedicels  short,  subtended  by  1  or  2 
green,  persistent  bracts;  flowers  greenish,  %-%  inch  (12-20 
mm.)  long;  calyx  tube  short,  campanulate,  lobes  greenish,  glan- 
dular pubescent;  petals  white,  thinnish,  involute,  acute,  more  or 
less  toothed  at  apex;  anthers  white;  berry  glandular  hispid. 

Found  in  the  coast  range  north  of  San  Francisco,  and  in  the 
Vaca  Mountains,  California. 

10.  B.  HESPERIUM,  McClatchie. 

"Shrub  5-10  feet  (15-30  decimeters)  high,  with  spreading 
branches;  stems  smooth,  beset  with  dark  colored  spines,  which 
are  commonly  single,  but  occasionally  double  or  triple ;  leaves, 
inflorescence  and  young  branches  puberulent;  leaves  thin,  /£- 
1%  inches  (15-45  mm.)  broad,  3-5  lobed,  the  lobes  incised; 
peduncles  1-2  flowered,  2-3  lines  (4-6  mm.)  long;  pedicels  about 
3  lines  (6  mm.)  long;  bracts  broad,  fan -shaped,  with  ciliated 
membranous  pinkish  margin;  flowers  about  %  inch  (10  mm.) 
long;  calyx  tube  campanulate,  slightly  inflated,  about  one  line 
(2  mm.)  long;  segments  from  greenish  white  to  greenish  red,  3-4 
lines  (6-8  mm.)  long;  petals  white,  tinged  with  red,  about  half 
the  length  of  the  sepals,  cuneate-oblong,  2-  or  3 -toothed,  slightly 
involute;  filaments  about  half  longer  than  petals;  anthers  ovate - 
oblong,  mucronate,  greenish;  ovary  densely  echinate,  bristles 
greenish  red,  mature  berry  very  prickly,  %-%  inch  (12-20  mm.) 
in  diameter."— McClatchie,  Erythea,  2  :  77. 

Described  from  southern  California.  Found  in  shady  canons. 
I  have  not  seen  specimens,  but  it  appears  to  agree  with  this  section 
in  the  mucronate  anthers,  though  perhaps  lacking  the  sagittate 
base. 

11.  B.  LOBBII,  Gray.     (Fig.  85.) 

Shrub  2-5  feet  (6  to  15  decimeters)  high;  branches  rigid,  zig- 
zag, without  prickles,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  R.  Californi- 
cum.  but  the  younger  ones  glandular  pubescent,  the  older  dark 
brown,  with  scaly  bark;  thorns  slender,  mostly  triple,  varying  in 
color  with  the  bark  of  the  branch  from  which  they  emerge ;  leaves 
less  than  an  inch  (25  mm.)  in  diameter,  round -cordate,  3-5 -cleft, 
the  roundish  lobes  obtusely  toothed,  minutely  pubescent  and 
glandular  on  both  sides ;  peduncles  long  and  slender,  1-2  flowered ; 
pedicels  short,  nearly  enclosed  by  the  broad  bract;  flower  pendu- 
lous, half  an  inch  long  beyond  the  ovary ;  calyx  lobes  lurid  purple, 
pubescent  on  the  outside;  petals  white,  wedge-shaped,  irregularly 


Fig.  85.    Ribes  Lobbii  (XI). 


THE  GOOSEBERRY  OF  THE  PLAINS 


455 


toothed  at  the  summit,  reaching  half  way  to  the  base  of  the  an- 
thers; style  commonly  2-cleft,  glabrous,  together  with  the  stamens 
about  equaling  the  calyx  lobes  in  length;  anthers  double,  short, 
broad  and  blunt ;  ovary  and  berry  densely  covered  with  very  short, 
fine,  glandular-tipped  prickles  or  hairs,  which  extend  to  the 
peduncles,  petioles  and  other  young  parts  of  the  plant. 

Found  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  northern  California  northward. 

In  general  appearance  this  species  closely  resembles  E.  sub- 
vestitum,  Hook.  &  Arn.,  and  is  the  plant  figured  under  that  name 
in  Bot.  Mag.  t.  4931.  E.  Lobbii  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of 
prickles  from  the  stems,  its  long  filaments  and  short,  blunt  an- 
thers, and  the  shorter  and  finer,  stiff,  glandular  hairs  which  cover 
its  fruit. 

E.  Marshallii,  Greene,  as  originally  described,*  seems  to  corre- 
spond so  closely  to  this  species  that  without  access  to  specimens 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  suffi- 
cient reason  for  giving  it  specific 
rank. 

12.  R.  GRACILE,  Michx.   (Fig.  86.) 

Low  shrub,  the  old  stems  gen- 
erally smooth  and  shining,  the 
young  shoots  densely  covered 
with  prickles,  which  scale  off 
with  the  bark  as  they  grow  older. 
Thorns  mostly  single,  sometimes 
triple,  stout,  straight,  reddish, 
%-%  inch  (6-10  mm.)  long; 
branches  with  occasional  small, 
slender  prickles  ;  leaves  thin, 
rather  sharply  toothed,  %-lX 
inches  (2-4  cm.)  in  diameter; 
peduncles  mostly  2 -flowered,  long 
slender  and  drooping,  smooth, 
or  barely  showing  a  trace  of 
pubescence ;  flower  finely  divided 
and  fragile ;  calyx  tube  narrow,  almost  cylindrical ;  lobes  long  and 
narrow,  often  widely  extended  when  in  flower,  whitish,  or  greenish 
white;  petals  thin,  obovate,  or  wedge-shaped,  reflexed.at  the 


Fig.  86.    Rites  gracile  (X%). 


*Pittonia  1:31. 


456  B  USE-PR  UITS 

margins;  stamens  several  times  as  long  as  the  petals;  filaments 
slender,  slightly  pubescent;  style  2-cleft,  smooth,  like  the  sta- 
mens, projecting  beyond  the  calyx  lobes;  berry  smooth,  of  me- 
dium size,  dark  purple  or  brownish. 

Michigan  to  Tennessee,  and  westward  to  Texas  and  the  Eocky 
Mountains. 

This  is  the  common  species  of  the  Plains.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  finely  divided,  fragile  appearance  of  the  flower. 
Although  not  in  cultivation,  its  adaptibility  to  the  Plains  might 
render  it  of  especial  value  for  that  region  if  improved. 

13.  E'.  CURVATA,  Small. 

Low,  diffusely  branched  shrub,  the  older  parts  covered  with 
loose,  papery  bark,  the  younger  branches  small,  wiry,  smooth  and 
shining,  reddish  or  purplish  in  color;  thorns  slender,  obliquely 
recurved,  %-/£  inch  (3-6  mm.)  long;  leaves  small,  %-%  inch 
(10-20  mm.)  in  diameter,  suborbicular ;  lobes  rounded,  not  deeply 
cut,  thick  and  beset  with  resinous  dots;  petioles  rather  slender 
and  villous;  peduncles  slender,  commonly  one,  sometimes  two- 
flowered  ;  flowers  finely  divided  and  fragile ;  calyx-tube  very  short ; 
segments  long  and  narrow,  reflexed,  white  or  greenish  white; 
petals  minute ;  filaments  long  and  slender,  pubescent  or  somewhat 
villous;  style  villous,  slightly  2-cleft;  ovary  smooth;  berry  round, 
smooth  and  small. 

Described  from  Stone  Mountain,  Georgia. 

This  is  evidently  the  southeastern  representative  of  B.  gracile. 
It  differs  from  that  species  in  its  smooth,  shining  branchlets, 
smaller  recurved  thorns,  smaller,  thicker  and  less  sharply  cut 
leaves,  which  bear  resinous  dots. 

14.  E.  NIVEUM,  Lindl. 

Shrub  4-6  feet  (12-18  decimeters)  high,  with  slender,  upright 
twigs  and  branches,  and  single  to  triple  thorns;  leaves  roundish, 
entire  at  base,  3-5  lobed,  somewhat  pubescent  when  young,  gla- 
brous when  older ;  petioles  long  and  slender ;  peduncles  slender, 
drooping,  1-4  flowered,  the  very  slender  pedicels  subtended  by 
small,  broad  bracts;  calyx-tube  smooth,  short,  bell-shaped; 
lobes  long?  lanceolate,  at  first  upright,  later  reflexed,  white  and 
glabrous;  petals  white,  wedge-shaped,  much  shorter  than  the 
calyx  lobes;  stamens  slightly  longer  than  the  calyx  lobes,  fila- 
ments hairy;  .style  2-cleft,  villous;  ovary  smooth;  berry  round, 
smooth,  bluish  black,  about  the  size  of  a  black  currant.  Lindley 


BOTANY  OF    THE    GOOSEBERRIES  457 

described  it*  as  having  a  "rich,  subacid,  vinous,  rather  perfumed 
flavor,  which  is  extremely  agreeable." 

Found  in  the  northwestern  portion  of  North  America. 

15.  E.  DIVARICATUM,  Dougl.     (Fig.  87.) 

Stems  clustered,  branches  widely  spreading,  5-12  feet  (15-35 
decimeters)  long,  nearly  glabrous;  thorns  stocky,  mostly  single; 
leaves  shining,  minutely  pubescent,  roundish,  3-5  lobed,  the  lobes 
incisely  toothed  on  long  slender  petioles ;  mostly  less  than  1  inch 
(25  mm.)  in  diameter;  peduncles  long,  2-4-flowered;  pedicels 
slender  and  drooping,  half  an  inch  (12  mm.)  long,  with  a  small, 
broad  bract  at  base;  flower  %-%  inch  (10-13  mm.)  long;  calyx 
livid  purple,  [slightly  greenish  without;  petals  white  or  purple  - 
tinged,  fan-shaped,  the  margins  convolutely  overlapping;  fila- 
ments and  2-cleft  villous  style  longer  than  the  calyx  lobes;  an- 
thers very  short  and  broad,  mostly  in  pairs;  ovary  smooth;  berry 
small,  glabrous,  dark  purple  or  black,  agreeable. 

Found  from  California  to  British  Columbia,  the  variety  extend- 
ing eastward  to  the  Eocky  Mountains. 

This  species  might  well  receive  attention  from  horticulturists. 
The  bush  is  comparatively  free  from  thorns,  the  fruit  of  good 
size,  fine  flavor  and  perfectly  smooth. 

Covillef  bases  a  variety  E.  oxyacanthoides  var.  saxosum,  Hook., 
on  the  following  characters:  "Petioles  usually  with  a  few  long, 
spreading,  large,  but  rather  flexuous,  bristle-like  hairs  on  the 
margins  near  the  base,  otherwise  glabrous;  leaves  with  a  broad 
but  well-marked  sinus  at  the  base,  glabrous  on  both  sides."  This, 
I  think,  is  a  form  of  JR.  divaricatum. 

16.  E.  ROTUNDIFOLIUM,  Michx.     (Fig.  88.) 

Low  shrub,  much  resembling  R.  gracile;  branches  commonly 
straight,  with  light  colored  bark;  thorns  mostly  single,  but  very 
short,  gray,  like  the  outer  bark;  leaves  wedge-shaped,  deeply  3-5 
lobed,  smooth  or  slightly  downy,  ciliate  on  the  margins  and  veins, 
petioles  pubescent,  the  hairs  sometimes  glandular-tipped  when 
very  young,  peduncles  short,  2-3-flowered,  rather  slender  like  the 
pedicels ;  calyx  lobes  narrow  or  oblong,  greenish  or  dull  purplish, 
much  shorter  than  in  B.  gracile,  apparently  seldom  reflexed ;  petals 
obovate,  small,  filaments  longer  than  the  calyx  lobes,  style  2-cleft, 
villous;  berry  small,  smooth,  agreeable. 

In  the  U.  S.  National  Herbarium  there  occurs  a  small-leaved 

*Bot.  Reg.  Aug.,  1834.  fCont.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.,  4:100. 


Fig.  88.     Ribes  rotundifolium  (X%) 


Fig.  87.    Ribes  divaricatum  (X%). 
(Fruit  X%.) 


Fig,  89.    Kibes  leptanthum  (Xl%). 


BOTANY  OF   THE   GOOSEBERRIES  459 

form,  with  brown,  irregular,  thornless  branches,  rounded  leaves 
10-15  mm.  in  diameter,  and  small  flowers  with  reflexed  calyx  - 
lobes.  The  leaves  correspond  much  better  to  the  name  rotundi- 
folium  than  do  those  of  the  more  common  form  referred  to  this 
species.  The  plant  seems  to  approach  R.  curvata. 

Western  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  southward  to  North 
Carolina  along  the  Alleghanies. 

This  appears  to  be  unknown  in  cultivation,  owing,  no  doubt, 
to  the  small  size  of  its  fruit. 

17.  E.  LEPTANTHUM,  Gray.     (Fig.  89.) 

Sturdy,  much  branched,  rigid  shrub,  1-4  feet  (3-12  decimeters) 
high,  with  grayish  bark,  and  no  prickles,  thorns  long,  slender, 
single  or  triple,  like  the  bark  in  color;  leaves  roundish,  very 
small,  %-%  inch  (6-15  mm.)  in  diameter,  3-5-cleft,  the  lobes 
crenately  toothed  or  incised,  finely  pubescent  above  and  beneath ; 
peduncles  very  short,  1-2 -flowered;  flower  small,  yellow  or 
yellowish,  calyx  pubescent,  outside  tube  cylindrical,  long  and 
narrow,  equaling  the  lobes  in  length;  petals  broad,  half  the  length 
of  the  calyx  lobes;  stamens  just  equaling  the  petals  in  length; 
anthers  oval-oblong;  style  undivided,  glabrous;  exceeding  the 
stamens;  ovary  glabrous;  berry  smooth. 

Found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico 
and  mountains  westward. 

Judging  only  from  the  description*  and  a  single  specimen, 
there  appears  to  be  little  reason  for  separating  E.  quercetorum, 
Greene,  from  this  species.  The  form  so  described  is  found  in 
California,  and  is  said  to  have  fragrant  flowers,  with  yellow  fruit. 

18.  R.  COGNATUM,  Greene. t 

Described  as  follows :  "  Shrub  evidently  large  and  the  branches 
not  rigid;  younger  branches  stiffly  and  densely  setose -hispid, 
the  1-3  subaxillary  spines  short,  not  very  stout;  leaves,  and 
especially  the  long  and  slender  petioles,  villous- pubescent;  flowers 
3-5,  at  the  ends  of  long  and  slender  pendulous  peduncles; 
calyx  salver  form,  the  long  cylindrical  tube  villous-pubescent, 
twice  the  length  of  the  oblong  segments,  the  whole  apparently 
flesh-color;  petals  spatulate-obovate,  truncate  or  retuse,  not 
equaling  the  calyx  segments;  bracts  of  the  raceme  rounded  or 
subreniform,  glandular -ciliate;  ovaries  glabrous. 

"River  banks  at  Pendleton,  Oregon,  May  17,  1896,  Thomas 
Howell.  R.  leptanthum  is  the  nearest  relative  of  this." 


*BuU.  Cal.  Acad.  Sci.  1:83. 
tPittonia  3:115. 


460  BUSH-FRUITS 

19.  B.    BRACHYANTHUM    (Gray).      E.    leptanthum   var.    brachyan- 

ihum,  Gray.     R.  velutinum,  Greene. 

Low,  rigid,  much -branched  shrub  with  grayish  or  hoary  bark, 
destitute  of  prickles;  spines  slender,  sometimes  nearly  absent; 
leaves  small,  rounded,  tomentose,  and  often  glandular;  peduncles 
short,  commonly  1 -flowered;  flowers  yellowish;  calyx  hirsute 
without,  tube  short,  enlarged  above  the  ovary,  narrowing  to  the 
base  of  the  lobes,  lobes  narrowly  spatulate,  reflexed  in  flower; 
ovary,  and  at  least  the  young  fruit,  finely  but  densely  pubescent. 

Rocky  Mountains  and  mountains  westward. 

This  form  long  stood  as  a  variety,  but  has  evidently  much 
better  claim  to  specific  rank  than  many  other  recognized  species. 

According  to  Coville*  this  plant  is  distinct  from  R.  velutinum, 
Greene,  and  that  opinion  may  be  correct.  Whatever  the  dispo- 
sition made  of  them,  they  are  apparently  representatives  of  the 
same  form,  perhaps  modified  by  geographical  position. 

20.  E.  LASIANTHUM,  Greene. 

Described  as  follows:!  "Stout,  low,  widely  spreading  and  intri- 
cately branched,  the  height  seldom  exceeding  2  feet,  branches 
glabrous;  infrastipular  spines  commonly  3,  rather  slender,  straight; 
rounded  leaves  %-%  inch  (13-20  mm.)  broad,  short-petioled, 
pubescent,  cleft  to  the  middle  into  3  terminal  lobes,  with  2-4 
more  shallow  and  less  distinct  lateral  or  basal  ones,  all  these 
3-lobed  at  apex,  the  sinuses  closed;  flowers  3  or  4,  in  very  short- 
peduncled  racemes,  yellow;  calyx  about  5  lines  (10  mm.)  long, 
the  hirsute  tube  much  dilated  above  the  ovary,  thence  tapering 
gradually  to  the  spreading  spatulate  lobes;  petals  also  spatulate, 
shorter  than  the  calyx  lobes;  young  ovaries  hairy;  fruit  un- 
known. 

"An  almost  alpine  species,  flowering  in  the  latter  part  of 
July,  near  the  receding  snow-drifts  in  the  mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia above  Donner  Lake,  toward  Castle  Peak." 

Judging  from  the  description  only,  this  differs  from  R.  'brachy- 
anthum  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  in  the  size  of  the  flowers.  In 
this  connection  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  altitude 
has  any  tendency  to  induce  increase  in  size  or  lengthening  of 
the  floral  parts. 

21.  R.  IRRIGUUM,  Dougl.     (Fig.  90.)     JR.  leucoderme,  Heller. 
Shrub  3-10  feet  (1-3  meters)  high,  branches  sometimes  nearly 

*Cont.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.,  4:100. 
tPittonia,  3:22. 


BOTANY  OF   THE   GOOSEBERRIES  461 

smooth  but  often  densely  covered  with  fine,  straight,  setose  prick- 
les; thorns  generally  3,  commonly  long,  slender,  and  somewhat 
ascending;  bark  for  the  most  part  gray  or  whitish,  at  least  on 
younger  branches;  leaves  deeply  cordate,  3-5-lobed,  coarsely 
and  somewhat  obtusely  serrate,  slightly  pubescent,  both  above  and 
beneath,  commonly  beset,  especially  on  the  under  surface,  with 
numerous  minute  resinous  dots,  which  tend  to  disappear  with 
age,  %-l%  inches  (2-4  cm.)  broad;  petioles  pubescent,  some- 
what glandular  and  slightly  ciliate,  equaling  or  exceeding  the 
leaves  in  length;  peduncles  2-  or  3-flowered,  pubescent,  pedicels 
short,  subtended  by  short,  rounded  green  bracts,  which  are  com- 
monly ciliate,  with  glandular-tipped  hairs;  flowers  greenish  white, 
narrowly  campanulate,  %-%  inch  (8-12  mm.)  long,  exclusive  of 
the  ovary;  calyx  lobes  as  long  as  the  tube;  petals  obovate,  white, 
half  as  long  as  •  the  calyx  lobes,  stamens  equaling  or  slightly 
exceeding  the  petals;  fruit  smooth,  spherical,  juicy,  with  a  pleas- 
ant flavor. 

From  the  northwest  coast  of  the  United  States ;  eastward  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Common  in  Washington. 

Douglas  says  of  this  species,  in  connection  with  the  original 
description:*  "Of  all  the  species  which  came  under  my  observa- 
tion during  my  journeys  in  America,  this  is  the  finest  in  the  flavour 
of  its  berries,  as  well  as  in  their  size."  Judging  from  this  state- 
ment, and  the  apparent  vigor  of  the  plant,  it  is  a  species  which 
might  well  receive  attention  from  the  horticulturist. 

22.  R.  SETOSUM,  Lindl.     (Fig.  91.) 

Branches  commonly  covered  with  slender  prickles,  which  later 
scale  away  with  the  bark ;  thorns  often  several  in  a  whorl ;  leaves 
cordate,  5-7-lobed,  the  lobes  incised,  together  with  the  petioles 
minutely  pubescent;  calyx  tube  cylindrical,  about  %  °f  an  inen 
(3  mm.)  long,  exclusive  of  ovary  and  lobes;  petals  as  long  as  the 
stamens;  style  commonly  2-cleft,  villous;  berry  dark  purple,  sour, 
sometimes  hispid. 

Northwestern  Nebraska,  west  and  northward  to  Ontario. 

This  appears  to  be  the  gradation  species  between  R.  oxyacan- 
thoides  and  E.  irriguum.  Though  the  typical  form  is  very  distinct, 
it  is  so  gradually  approached  by  JR.  oxyacanthoides  on  the  Plains 
that  it  is  at  times  difficult  to  separate  them. 

23.  R.  OXYACANTHOIDES,  Linn.     (Fig.  92.)    Common  Gooseberry. 
Low  shrub,  2-4  feet  (6-12  decimeters)  high,  branches  slender, 


*  Trans.  London,  Hort.  Soc.  7:516. 


Fig.  90.    Ribes  irriguum  (XI). 


Fig.  92.    Ribes  oxyacan- 
thoides  (X%). 


THE    CULTIVATED    GOOSEBERRIES 


463 


reclined,  but  often  crooked,  reddish  brown,  covered  with  scaly 
gray  bark  when  young,  commonly  smooth,  but  sometimes  with 
scattered  prickles,  thorns  single  or  triple,  rather  slender  and  very 
finely  pointed,  %-%  inch  (6-10  mm.)  long,  sometimes  nearly  or 
quite  wanting;  leaves  thin,  roundish,  varying  from  cuneate  to 
cordate,  deeply  3-5-lobed,  the  lobes  in- 
cised and  coarsely  toothed,  finely  pu- 
bescent above  and  beneath,  but  com- 
monly glossy  when  growing ;  peduncles 
very  short,  1-2-flowered;  calyx  greenish 
white,  smooth  or  pubescent  without, 
tube  campanulate,  lobes  oblong  or  ob- 
ovate,  thin  and  petal -like,  generally 
equaling  or  slightly  exceeding  the  sta- 
mens in  length;  petals  broadly  ovate 
or  spatulate,  reaching  half  way  to  the 
anthers;  style  single  or  2 -cleft,  villous 
below,  slightly  longer  than  the  sta- 
mens ;  ovary  glabrous;  berry  round, 
perfectly  smooth,  but  with  a  delicate 
bloom,  small  or  medium  sized,  yel- 
lowish green  or  reddish  when  ripe. 

Original  distribution: -Newfoundland 
to  New  Jersey  and  westward  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Koehne*  retains  the  name  B.  hirtel- 
lum  (Michx.)  for  the  more  common 
eastern  form,  with  mostly  single  thorns, 
rounded  leaves  and  longer  stamens, 
reserving  the  name  oxyacanthoides  for 
what  appears  to  be  a  more  common 
northwestern  form,  with  somewhat 
heart-shaped  leaves,  more  numerous 
thorns,  and  longer  calyx  tube.  Those 
who  adhere  to  a  close  conception  of 
prefer  this  classification. 

R.  oxyacanthoides  may  not  be  the  most  promising  native  goose 
berry,  but  to-day  it  stands  preeminent  in  American  horticulture. 

24.  E.    GROSSULARIA,    Linn.     European    Gooseberry.     (Fig.    93.) 
E.  uva  crispa,  Linn. 

Bush  stocky,  rigid;    branches  thick,  the  fruiting  ones  without 
*  Deutsche  Dendrologie,  199. 


Fig.  93.    Ribes  grossula- 
ria  (XI). 


species   will     doubtless 


464  BUSH-FRUITS 

prickles;  thorns  mostly  triple,  heavy  and  thick  at  the  base,  the 
central  one  %-/£  inch  (10-13  mm.)  long;  leaves  thick  and  very 
glossy,  pubescent;  petioles  sometimes  sparsely  beset  with  glandu- 
lar-tipped hairs';  peduncles  short,  1-2 -flowered,  pubescent  or 
glandular;  calyx  strongly  pubescent,  greenish,  tube  broad,  bell- 
shaped;  lotees  broadly  ovate,  thickish  and  leaf-like;  petals  obo- 
vate,  reaching  to  the  base  of  the  anthers;  stamens  shorter  than 
the  calyx  lobes;  style  commonly  2-cleft,  villous  at  base;  ovary 
pubescent  or  glandular;  berry  generally  oval,  large,  green,  yel- 
lowish green  or  red,  minutely  but  roughly  pubescent,  often  with 
scattered  prickles  or  glandular -tipped  hairs  also. 

Original  Distribution. — Europe,  northern  Africa  and  western 
Asia.  Linn6  applied  the  name  uva  crispa  to  the  smooth-fruited 
form. 

Botanically,  the  American  and  European  gooseberry  differ  but 
little.  The  above  characters  appear  to  separate  wild  forms,  but 
may  not  be  constant  in  cultivation.  Horticulturally  the  two  spe- 
cies differ  much.  This  is  the  parent  of  the  English  gooseberries. 
It  is  widely  cultivated  throughout  Europe,  and  endless  varieties 
have  been  produced.  Thory*  describes  and  illustrates  by  colored 
plates  no  less  than  fifteen  forms  which  he  ranks  as  botanieal 
varieties. 

25.  R.  CYNOSBATI,  Linn.     (Fig.  94.) 

Compact  shrub,  2-4  feet  (6-12  decimeters)  high;  branches 
commonly  smooth,  sometimes  beset  with  fine,  slender,  reflexed 
prickles;  thorns  commonly  single,  slender,  fine  pointed,  &-f  inch 
(5-10  mm.)  long;  leaves  3-5-lobed,  coarsely  and  bluntly  toothed; 
petioles  long  and  slender,  pubescent,  and  bearing  glandular-tipped 
hairs;  peduncles  long,  filiform,  1-2 -flowered,  pubescent  and  glan- 
dular; flowers  small,  greenish,  calyx  tube  broadly  bell-shaped; 
lobes  narrow,  oblong,  acute,  half  as  long  as  the  tube;  petals 
minute,  half  as  long  as  the  calyx  lobes ;  stamens  shorter  than  the 
calyx;  style  single  or  2-cleft,  slightly  longer  than  the  stamens; 
ovary  glandular-hispid;  berry  large,  generally  prickly,  reddish 
purple. 

New  Brunswick  to  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  west- 
ward to  the  Eocky  Mountains. 

This  is  a  promising  species.  As  found  wild,  its  fruit  is  larger 
than  that  of  E.  oxyacanthoides,  often  reaching  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Though  generally  prickly,  plants  with  smooth  fruit 


"Monographie  ou  Histoire  Naturelle  du  Genre  Grosseillier. 


BOTANY  OF   THE   GOOSEBERRIES 


465 


often  occur.  Reports  from  the  Arnold  Arboretum*  state  that  in- 
dividual plants  raised  from  seed  collected  from  the  same  plant 
may  produce  either  smooth  or  prickly  fruit.  The  berries  are 
rather  thick  skinned  when  mature,  but  sweet  and  pleasant.  The 


Fig.  94.    Ribes  cynosbati  (Xl%). 


Fig.  95.    Ribes  lacustre  (XI). 


plants    are  generally  prolific,   and  are  less  prickly  than  those  of 
B.  oxyacanthoides ,  being  almost  free  from  thorns  in  some  cases. 

26.  B.  WATSONIANUM,  Koehne,   E.  amUguum,  Watson, f  not  Maxi- 

mowicz. 

Young  branches  somewhat  thick  and  soft,  sometimes  sparsely 
beset  with  weak  prickles,  which  cleave  away  with  the  bark ;  spines 
commonly  three  or  more  in  a  whorl,  slender,  yellowish,  the  center 
one  longer  than  the  others,  young  parts  glandular  pubescent  and 
villous;  leaves  1-2  inches  (2%-5  em.)  in  diameter,  roundish 
heart-shaped,  deeply  3-5-lobed,  bearing  short  hairs  both  above 
and  below ;  petioles  long,  slender,  prominently  ciliate ;  calyx  tube 
broadly  campanulate  or  hemispherical,  shorter  than  the  lobes, 

*Garden  and  Forest,  7:315. 

tProc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sciences,  18:193. 

DD 


466  BUSH-FRUITS 

greenish  white,  exceeding  the  stamens;  stamens  roundish,  blunt, 
as  long  as  the  petals ;  ovary  and  fruit  densely  covered  with  very 
long  slender  prickles,  as  in  R.  Californicum. 

Mountains  of  northern  California  and  Washington. 

This  species  is  the  western  representative  of  R.  cynosbati,  but 
its  fruit  appears  to  be  more  densely  covered  with  longer  and  more 
slender  spines.* 

27.  E.  PINETORUM,  Greene. t 

Bush  5-6  feet  (15-25  decimeters)  high,  sparingly  branched  and 
few-flowered;  branches  somewhat  zigzag,  smooth,  thorns  slender, 
1  to  several  in  a  whorl;  petiole  long  and  slender;  leaves  thin, 
smooth  or  barely  pubescent;  peduncles  short,  erect,  mostly 
1-flowered;  flowers  greenish  or  reddish  yellow,  %-%  inch 
(12-16  mm.)  long;  calyx  tube  cylindrical,  about  as  long  as  the 
lobes ;  lobes  spatulate,  reflexed,  longer  than  the  stamens ;  petals 
and  stamens  equal  in  length ;  anthers  short  and  blunt ;  style  gla- 
brous, undivided;  ovary  and  berry  thickly  beset  with  prickles; 
berry  large  and  well  flavored.  Flowers  in  April ;  fruit  ripens  in 
September. 

Described  from  New  Mexico. 

28.  E.    LACUSTRE    (Pers.),   Poir.     Lake    or    Swamp    Gooseberry. 

(Fig.  95.) 

Upright  shrub,  the  twigs  and  branches  beset  with  straight, 
slender  prickles;  thorns  weak,  single,  or  several  in  a  whorl,  espe- 
cially on  young  growth;  leaves  heart-shaped,  3-5-parted,  with  the 
lobes  deeply  cut,  especially  on  young  shoots;  petioles  long, 
slender,  glandular  pubescent;  peduncles  long,  filiform;  pedicels 
short,  calyx  open,  flat,  the  tube  nearly  wanting,  lobes  broad, 
greenish  white ;  petals  fan-shaped,  reddish,  nearly  as  long  as  the 
calyx  lobes ;  stamens  short,  anthers  very  short,  each  half  divided ; 
pistil  cleft  at  summit;  ovary  glandular  hairy ;  berry  small,  bristly, 
unpleasant. 

From  New  England,  through  Michigan,  Minnesota  and  the 
Eocky  Mountains  to  northern  California  and  far  northward. 

Westward  the  species  becomes  smaller.  In  the  Eoeky  Moun- 
tain region  it  is  commonly  glabrous  (var.  parvulum,  Gray),  and 
toward  the  Pacific  the  leaves  become  downy  pubescent  and  glan- 


*In  Fascicle  2  of  «A  Flora  of  Northwest  America,"  which  has  just  appeared, 
the  author,  Thomas  Howell,  describes  a  form  found  in  the  Siskiyou  Mountains 
under  the  name  It.  montanum.  This  name  cannot  stand  should  the  species  prove 
valid,  since  it  has  already  been  applied  to  a  South  American  species. 

tBot.  Gaz.  6:157. 


BOTANY  OF  THE  CURRANTS         467 

dular  (var.  molle,  Gray) .  This  pubescence  in  some  cases  becomes 
so  pronounced  and  viscid  as  to  stain  the  collecting  sheets  (var. 
lentum,  Jones,).  This  is  an  interesting  type,  because  intermediate 
between  the  currants  and  gooseberries,  but  it  appears  to  possess 
no  horticultural  merit. 

29.  R.  MONTIGENUM,  McClatchie.     JR.  nubigenum,  McClatchie. 
"Shrub  1-2  feet   (3-6  decimeters)  high,  with  numerous  rigid, 

spreading  branches,  armed  with  strong  triple  spines  below  the 
leafy  fascicles,  3-5  lines  (6-10  mm.)  apart;  outer  bark  smooth 
and  light  brown  on  1-  or  2-year-old  branches,  but  becoming 
loose  and  silvery  with  age ;  leaves  and  inflorescence  hirsute, 
some  of  the  hairs  bearing  glands;  leaves  /£-%  inch  (6-12  mm.) 
broad,  deeply  5-parted,  the  lobes  incised  and  toothed;  racemes 
3-6-flowered,  bracts  cordate,  acuminate;  calyx  about  /£  inch 
(6  mm.)  broad,  its  rounded  lobes  spreading  from  place  of  inser- 
tion on  ovary;  petals  minute;  stamens  less  than  a  line  (2  mm.) 
long;  anthers  broader  than  long,  deeply  lobed;  red  berries,  glan- 
dular, hirsute,  2-3  lines  (4-6  mm.)  in  diameter,  containing  1-3 
large  seeds."— McClatchie,  Erythea,  2:80. 

Described  from  the  summit  of  Mt.  San  Antonio,  southern 
California,  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet.  It  is  evidently  closely 
related  to  R.  lacustre.  The  plant  is  very  thorny  and  rugged, 
with  the  thorns  in  whorls. 

30.  E.    MULTIFLORUM,    Kit. 

Shrub  3-4  feet  (9-12  decimeters)  high,  with  upright,  spread- 
ing branches;  younger  twigs,  petioles  and  peduncles  pubescent, 
bearing  scattered  glandular-tipped  hairs;  leaves  long-petioled, 
roundish,  mostly  5-lobed,  dark  green  and  glabrous  above,  whitened 
downy  beneath ;  racemes  long,  dense,  pendulous ;  flowers  small, 
green  or  reddish  green;  calyx  tube  broadly  bell -shaped,  short; 
stamens  and  2 -cleft  style  longer  than  the  reflexed  calyx  lobes; 
fruit  dark  red,  as  large  as  a  good-sized  pea. 

Original  distribution. — Southeastern  Europe. 

This  species  has  long  been  in  limited  cultivation  in  Europe, 
but  is  little  known  in  the  United  States.  It  is  grown  at  the  Arnold 
Arboretum*  and  reported  as  a  handsome  and  interesting  shrub, 
worthy  of  more  general  culture. 

31.  R.  PROSTRATUM,  L'Her.     Fetid  Currant.     (Fig.  96.) 

Stems  long,   prostrate,   trailing  and  rooting;    branches   erect, 

*Garden  and  Forest,  1:189. 


468 


BUSH-FRUITS 


greenish  gray  or  brownish;  leaves  heart-shaped,  5-7-lobed;  peti- 
oles long,  slender;  racemes  erect,  slender;  bracts  small;  flowers 
small ;  calyx  flattish ;  lobes  obovate  or  roundish,  greenish  white 

or  purplish  ;  petals  spatulate 
or  fan-shaped,  small,  together 
with  the  anthers  often  purple, 
shorter  than  the  calyx  lobes; 
stamens  slightly  longer  than  the 
petals,  and  stout,  2 -cleft  style; 
filaments  thick;  ovary,  pedicels 
and  peduncles  covered  with 
glandular -tipped  hairs ;  berry 
glandular,  hispid. 

From  Labrador  to  the  moun- 
tains of  North  Carolina, 
and  westward  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean;  also  in 
northeastern  Asia,  upon 
the  islands  of  Saghalien 
and  Yesso. 

West  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains  the  flowers 
become  somewhat  larger 
and  more  commonly  purple, 
with  broader  fan -shaped  petals. 
Both  the  plant  and  fruit  emit  a 
disagreeable  odor  when  bruised. 
Thomas  Howell,  in  "A  Flora 
of  Northwest  America,"  erects  anew  spe- 
cies, under  the  name  B.  ciliosum,  to  cover 
a  form  found  in  marshy  ground  at  the 
base  of  Mount  Hood. 
32.  E.  ERYTHROCARPUM,Coville  &  Leiburg. 
This  plant  is  described*  as  follows: 
"Shrub  trailing  upon  the  ground,  devoid 
of  prickles,  the  stems  rooting  and  giving 
rise  to  ascending  branches  commonly  10- 
20  centimeters  in  height,  the  herbage 
and  inflorescence  clothed  with  short 
glandular  hairs;  leaves  angulate- orbicular  in  outline,  rugose, 
commonly  2-3.5  centimeters  in  diameter,  on  petioles  nearly 


Fig.  96.    Ribes  prostratum 


*Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  10:132. 


THE   GARDEN  CURRANT  469 

as  long,  3-5-lobed,  the  sinuses  extending  one-half  to  two-thirds 
the  way  to  the  base,  the  lobes  coarsely  crenate  and  the  crenatures 
unevenly  but  finely  dentate -serrate;  racemes  erect,  commonly  10- 
20-flowered,  the  bracts  herbaceous,  lanceolate  to  obovate,  com- 
monly 2-4  millimeters  long,  persistent ;  flowers  erect,  contiguous, 
when  expanded  6-8  millimeters  in  diameter,  on  pedicels  equaling 
the  bracts;  ovary  beset  with  short  glandular  hairs;  calyx  not  pro- 
duced into  a  tube,  the  spreading  lobes  oblong,  obtuse  or  broadly 
acute,  yellow  minutely  dotted  with  red,  therefore  appearing  sal- 
mon-colored, sparingly  and  minutely  pubescent  without,  glabrous 
within;  petals  broadly  spatulate,  glabrous,  one-third  to  one-half 
the  length  of  the  calyx  lobes  and  similar  in  color;  filaments 
glabrous;  style  glabrous,  2-parted;  fruiting  racemes  erect  or 
sometimes  declined  by  the  weight  of  the  berries ;  fruit  on  erect 
pedicels,  scarlet,  subpyriform  to  spherical,  commonly  8-10  mil- 
limeters in  length,  provided  with  short  glandular  hairs,  the  flesh 
white  or  translucent,  insipid." 

Collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Crater  Lake,  Oregon. 

The  authors  state  that  the  plant  appears,  from  the  structure  of 
its  flowers,  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  E.  laxiflorum,  from  which  it 
is  distinguishable  by  its  creeping  habit  and  its  glandular  pubes- 
cence. In  the  latter  character  and  in  general  appearance  it  resem- 
bles E.  viscosissimum,  though  possessing  the  rank  odor  of  E.  pros- 
tratum  and  E.  Hudsonianum,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  the  cit- 
ronella-like  smell  of  E.  viscosissimum. 
33.  E.  RUBRUM,  Linn.  Garden  Currant.  (Fig.  97.) 

Stems  straggling  or  reclined;  branches  thick  and  stocky; 
leaves  somewhat  heart-shaped,  pubescent  when  young,  becoming 
glabrous,  moderately  3-5-lobed,  the  lobes  roundish,  serrate,  the 
teeth  mucronate;  petioles  broadened  at  the  base,  pubescent, 
commonly  with  scattered,  short,  glandular-tipped  hairs;  racemes 
drooping,  produced  from  lateral  buds  distinct  from  the  leaf -buds ; 
flowers  small,  yellowish  green  or  purplish ;  calyx-tube  broad, 
saucer -shaped;  lobes  roundish;  petals  minute;  stamens  and 
style  very  short,  the  latter  2-cleft;  fruit  round,  shining,  thin- 
skinned,  bright  red,  yellowish  white,  or  even  striped. 

Original  distribution. — New  England,  west  to  Minnesota  and  far 
northward;  also  in  northern  and  middle  Europe,  the  Orient  and 
Caucasus,  Siberia,  Manchuria  and  northern  Japan  to  Kamschatka. 

Slight  geographical  variations  occur,  and  all  native  North 
American  forms  have  been  referred  to  a  separate  variety  (var. 
subglandulosum,  Maxim.),  but  apparently  without  sufficient  rea- 
son. In  cultivation,  numerous  variations  occur,  both  in  character 


470 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Fig.  97.    Eibresrubrum(X%). 


of  fruit  and  foliage.  The  species  is  the  parent  of  all  our  red  and 
white  currants,  and  appears  to  thrive  equally  well  in  either  hemi- 
sphere. 

34.  R.  ALPINUM,  Linn.     Tasteless  Mountain  Currant.     E.  saxatile, 

hort.,  not  Pall.     (Fig.  98.) 

Low  shrub,  2-3  feet  (6-9  decimeters)  high;  branches  upright, 
whitish;  leaves  3-5-k»bed,  the  lobes  coarsely  incised  serrate,  acute, 
slightly  hairy  on  the  upper  surface,  the  petioles  commonly  bear- 
ing short,  scattered,  glandular -tipped  hairs;  flowers  small,  yel- 
lowish green,  dioacious,  staminate  clusters  long,  20-30  flowered, 
pistillate  clusters  shorter,  5-10-flowered;  pedicels  short;  bracts 


TASTELESS  MOUNTAIN   CURRANT  471 

longer  than  the  pedicel  and  flower,  like  the  peduncle,  bearing 
short,  glandular-tipped  hairs;  calyx  flat,  lobes  ovate;  petals  very 
minute;  fruit  smooth,  scarlet,  insipid  or 
sweetish. 

Original  distribution. — Mountains  of 
Europe  and  the  Orient,  in  Siberia,  Turk- 
estan, Manchuria  and  Japan. 

Said  to  be  in  limited   cultivation  for 
fruit  in  parts  of  Europe,  improved  form?, 
with    both  red    and    black 
fruits,    being    known.       It 
has     been    grown    at    the 
Arnold  Arboretum,  and  is 
reported*  to  possess  some 
ornamental  value. 

35.         R.        VIBURNIFOLIUM, 

Gray.  (Fig.  99.) 
A  straggling  bush, 
altogether  unlike  other 
members  of  the  genus ; 
bark  grayish,  cracking 
away  in  rings;  twigs, 
peduncles,  petioles  and 
under  surface  of  the 


Fig.  99.    Ribes  viburnifolium 


leaves  beset   with  bright 
yellowish,  resinous  dots; 
FiK.98.    Ribes  alpinum  (Xl).  leaves   broadly    ovate    or 

roundish,  obtuse,  scarcely 

or  not    at    all    3-lobed,    sparsely  crenate    or    dentate,   the    teeth 
mucronate,   thick,    with    a    peculiar    pebbled,    leathery    appear- 


"Garden  and  Forest,  6  :  245. 


472  BUSH-FRUITS 

ance;  petioles  pubescent;  racemes  upright,  corymbose;  pedi- 
cels long  filiform,  the  lower  ones  compound;  flowers  small;  calyx- 
tube  flat;  lobes  ovate  or  oblong,  rose  colored,  several  times  as 
long  as  the  tube;  petals  minute;  stamens  and  2 -cleft  style  very 
short;  berry  apparently  smooth  or  leathery. 

Northern  part  of  Lower  California  and  islands  of  southwestern 
California. 

36.  E.  LAXIFLORUM,  Pursh.     R.  Howellii,  Greene.     R.  acerifolium, 

Howell. 

Stems  ascending,  3-8  feet  (9-24  decimeters)  long,  unarmed; 
leaves  2-3  inches  (5-7.5  cm.)  in  diameter,  cordate,  or  sometimes 
truncate,  mostly  5-lobed;  lobes  doubly  and  somewhat  finely  and 
sharply  incised,  bearing  very  minute  resinous  dots  beneath; 
petioles  long  and  slender,  dilated  and  ciliate  with  glandular- 
tipped  hairs  at  the  base ;  shoots  subtended  by  prominent  scarious 
bracts;  racemes,  ovary  and  calyx  glandular  pubescent;  bracts 
slender,  as  long  as  the  pedicels;  petals  minute,  red,  spatulate; 
calyx-tube  broad,  saucer -shaped;  lobes  broadly  obovate  or  spatu- 
late; anthers  very  short  and  broad;  filaments  flattened;  style 
deeply  2-cleft;  fruit  purple  or  black,  sparingly  glandular  bristly. 

Oregon  and  Washington. 

This  is  apparently  a  western  ally  of  R.  prostratum,  differing 
from  that  species  chiefly  in  the  longer  bracts,  larger  calyx- lobes, 
and  the  resinous  dots  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves. 

37.  EIBES  HUDSONIANUM,  Rich. 

Upright  shrub,  3-4  feet  (9-12  decimeters)  high;  branches  erect, 
thick,  the  bark  scaling  off  in  thin,  papery  layers;  leaves  large, 
coarsely  incised  or  serrate,  nearly  glabrous  above,  with  minute 
resinous  dots  beneath;  petioles  long,  broadened  toward  the  base, 
minutely  pubescent ;  racemes  erect,  long,  narrow,  many-flowered; 
pedicels  short;  bracts  minute,  deciduous;  calyx-tube  short;  lobes 
lanceolate -oblong,  pubescent,  whitish,  resinous  dots  extending 
from  the  outer  surface  of  the  lobes  to  the  peduncles,  being 
thickest  on  the  ovary  and  pedicels;  petals  small,  obovate,  one- 
fourth  as  long  as  the  calyx-lobes ;  stamens  as  long  as  the  petals ; 
style  single  or  2-parted;  fruit  round,  black,  glabrous. 

Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Eocky  Mountains,  Oregon  and  northward. 

In  the  mountains  of  Oregon  the  calyx  becomes  nearly  gla- 
brous and  the  racemes  longer  (var.  B.,  Hook.).  This  species  re- 
sembles R.  nigrum  in  its  fruit  and  the  odor  of  the  plants. 

38.  E.  BRACTEOSUM,    Dougl. 

Tall,  upright  shrub,  4-10  feet  (12-30  decimeters)  high,  almost 
glabrous,  at  least  with  age,  the  smaller  parts  sprinkled  with 


EUROPEAN  BLACK  CURRANT 


473 


resinous  dots;    leaves  large,    3-9  inches 
(8-25  cm.)    in  diameter,   5-7    cleft,    the 
lobes  ovate  or  narrower,  acute  or  acumi- 
nate,  coarsely    and    doubly    serrate,   the 
upper  side   rough,   hairy,  with  scattered 
resinous    dots,  under  side  smooth,   with 
dots  numerous ;   petioles  long ; 
racemes    erect   or    ascending, 
sometimes     terminal,     many- 
flowered,    4-8    inches    (10-20 
cm.)  long,  in  fruit  often  much 
longer  and  loose ;  bracts  per- 
sistent,  filiform  to  spatulate, 
or    the   lower   foliaceous  and 
petiolate,   sometimes    passing 
into   leaves;     pedicels    erect, 
pubescent ;     flowers    greenish 
white     or    yellowish     purple, 
inconspicuous  ;        calyx-lobes 
roundish     or     oval;     stamens 
short;     style    2 -cleft;     berry 
black,    resinous,     dotted,     % 
inch  (8  mm.)  in  diameter,  re- 
sembling B.  nigrum  in  flavor. 
Northern  California   to  Sitka. 

39.  E.  NIGRUM,  Linn.  Euro- 
pean Black  Currant. 
(Fig.  100.) 

Upright  shrub,  with  thick, 
grayish  branches;  leaves  heart-shaped, 
3-5-lobed,  or  incised,  coarsely  serrate, 
the  teeth  mucronate,  sometimes  broader 
than  long,  the  under  side  sprinkled  with 
minute  bright  yellow  resinous  dots ;  pet- 
iole long,  slender,  minutely  pubescent; 
racemes  drooping,  5-10-flowered,  bracts 
minute;  pedicels  short;  flowers  greenish 
white,  short  and  broad  ;  calyx -tube 
broadly  urn-shaped,  pubescent  and  res- 
inous dotted;  lobes  small,  oval,  thick 
and  greenish ;  petals  and  stamens  nearly 

as  long  as  the  calyx  lobes ;  ovary  pubescent  and  resinous  dotted ; 
berry  round,  black,  larger  than  red  currant,  mawkish  flavor. 

Original  distribution. — Middle  and  northeastern  Europe,  through 
northern  Asia  to  Manchuria  and  northern  China. 


Fig.  100.    Ribes  nigrum 


474 


BUSH-FRUITS 


The  species  varies  widely,  and  numerous  botanical  varieties  are 
noted  based  on  characters  of  fruit  or  foliage.  Forms  occur  in 
which  the  leaves  are  deeply  slit,  or  parted  to  the  midrib.  In 
others,  the  fruit  is  yellowish  green  or  whitish. 

Extensively  cultivated  in  Europe.     The  plant  emits   a  strong, 
peculiar  odor  when  wounded. 
40.  R.  CEREUM,  Dougl.     (Figs.  101,  102.) 

Upright,  much-branched  shrub,  1-3  feet  (3-9  decimeters)  high; 
stem  and  older  branches  smooth,  gray  or  brownish;  smaller 
branches  short,  minutely  pubescent,  commonly  glutinous,  becom- 
ing rough  or  warty;  leaves  roundish  or  kidney  shaped,  X~l  inch 


Fig.  101.    Ribes  cereum  (X%). 

(12-25  mm.)  in  diameter,  somewhat  3-5-lobed,  crenately  toothed, 
firm  in  texture,  with  minute  white  waxy  dots  on  one  or  both  sides  ; 
petioles  pubescent;  racemes  short,  drooping,  compactly  3-5-flow- 
ered,  pubescent,  and  beset  with  glandular-tipped  hairs  which 
extend  to  the  bracts  and  ovary;  pedicels  very  short;  bracts  oval 
or  broad  and  leaf-like,  incised  at  the  tip,  closely  covering  the 
pedicel  and  ovary;  flowers  small;  calyx-tube  narrow,  %-%  inch 
(6-12  mm.)  long,  somewhat  angular,  pubescent,  nearly  white,  or 
pinkish  at  the  base;  lobes  short,  ovate,  reflexed;  petals  minute, 
orbicular;  stamens  concealed  within  the  calyx-tube;  style  slightly 
exceeding  it,  2-parted  at  the  tip;  berry  of  medium  size,  bright 
red,  somewhat  glandular,  sweet,  but  not  agreeable. 

From  New  Mexico  northward  through  the  Rocky  and  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  to  British  Columbia. 

The  flowers  are  commonly  almost  sessile,  but  a  form  from 
Montana  has  slender  pedicels,  longer  than  the  bracts  (var.  pedi- 
cellare,  Gray). 


BOTANY  OF  THE  CURRANTS         475 

41.  E.  VISCOSISSIMUM,  Pursh.     (Fig.  103.) 

Large,  branching  bush,  2-6  feet  (6-18  decimeters)  high,  stem 
and  older  branches  smooth,  dark  red,  young  shoots  pubescent  and 
viscid-glandular;  leaves  round- cordate,  1-3  inches  (2.5-8  cm.) 
wide,  distinctly  3-5-lobed,  lobes  roundish,  doubly  crenate,  some- 
what incised,  more  or  less  rugose  and  veiny,  glandular  pubescent 
above  and  below,  emitting  a  peculiar  scent,  likened  to  old  apples, 


Fig.  102.    Eibes  cereum  (XI). 


when  touched;  petioles  long;  racemes  erect,  covered  with  viscid 
glandular  pubescence,  which  extends  to  the  calyx  tube;  bracts 
linear-oblanceolate,  entire  or  slightly  incised  at  tip,  as  long  as  the 
pedicels;  pedicels  commonly  %-%  inch  (6-12  mm.)  long;  flowers 
large,  fragrant;  calyx  yellowish  or  whitish  green,  tube  broad, 
campanulate  or  ventricose,  lobes  oblong,  nearly  as  long  as  the 
tube,  spreading  but  not  reflexed ;  petals  ovate,  white,  shorter  than 
the  calyx  lobes;  stamens  and  pistil  hidden  within  the  flower;  fruit 
ovoid,  black,  rough,  glandular -hairy  or  rarely  smooth,  flavor 
unpleasant. 

High  altitudes  of  the  Rocky  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States  and  southern  British 
America. 

Douglas  says*  that  the  berries  are  so  musky  or  mawkish  that 
two  or  three  will  produce  vomiting,  though  it  has  since  been  pro- 
nounced edible. 

*  Trans.  Lon.  Hort.  Soc.  7:511. 


476 


BUSH-FRUITS 


42.  B.  SANGUINEUM,  Pursh.     Bed -flowered  Currant.     (Fig.  104.) 

An  erect,  branching  shrub,  2-12  feet  (1-4  meters)  high-  with 
red,  smooth  branches;  young  twigs  and  petioles  pubescent  or 
glandular -hairy;  leaves  round -cordate,  2-4  inches  (5-10  cm.) 


Fig.  103.    Ribes  viscossissimum  (X%). 


broad,  3-5-lobed,  doubly  serrate,  minutely  pubescent  above,  downy 
or  smooth  beneath,  petioles  long,  dilated  and  ciliate  at  base; 
racemes  long,  pendulous;  bracts  obovate,  red  or  whitish,  mem- 
branous, usually  as  long  as  the  pedicel;  calyx  tube  campanulate 
or  short  cylindrical,  lobes  obovate,  broad,  about  as  long  as  the 
tube,  purple-red  or  rose-colored;  petals  spatulate,  commonly 
white,  somewhat  shorter  than  the  calyx  lobes,  equaling  the 


THE   RED-FLOWERED    CURRANT 


477 


stamens;  style  2-cleft  at  apex,  glabrous,  slightly  exceeding  the 
stamens ;  ovary  beset  with  short,  glandular-tipped  hairs,  which 
extend  upward  to  the  calyx  and  downward  to  the  peduncles ;  fruit 
bluish  black,  generally  rough,  glandular- hairy,  tough,  dry  and 
bitterish.  A  variable  species. 

Var.  VARIEGATUM,  Watson. 

Described  as  low,  nearly  glabrous;  racemes  short  and  dense, 
ascending,  barely  glandular;  calyx  tube  broadly  campanulate,  not 
longer  than  the  lobes,  rose  color,  with  the  petals  white,  the  whole 
flower  only  3  lines  (6  mm.)  long.  Available  specimens  in  fruit 


Fig.  104.    Ribes  sanguineum  (X%). 


indicate  a  slightly  thicker  and  more  leathery  leaf,  decidedly  downy 
beneath,  a  somewhat  loose,  erect,  few-flowered  cluster,  with 
deciduous  bracts.  This  form  is  well  marked,  and  perhaps  ought 
to  stand  as  a  separate  species,  being  so  recognized  by  some,  under 
the  name  R.  Nevadense,  Kellogg. 

What  appears  to  be  the  eastern  representative  of  the  same  form 
was  described  from  Colorado  by  Rothrock,*  under  the  name  JR. 
Wolfii.  Judging  from  the  description  only,  this  differs  somewhat 
from  the  western  form,  and  perhaps  ought  to  be  recognized  as  a 
separate  variety,  or  possibly  even  as  a  distinct  species. 

Original  distribution. — From  southern  British  Columbia,  through 
California,  eastward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  form  Wolfii, 

*Amer.  Nat.  8:358. 


478 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Fig.  105.    Ribes  Gordonianum  (X%). 


and  southward  along  the  mountains  of  the  Pacific  coast  through 

Mexico  and  South  America. 

Numerous  forms    appear   in  cultivation,   some  of  which  have 

received  varietal  names  among  horticulturists.  The  most  impor- 
tant are  var.  albidum, 
with  whitish,  dirty  yel- 
low, or  yellowish  red 
flowers,  and  even  white 
fruit;*  var.  atrorubens, 
with  dark,  blood -red  flow- 
ers, and  var.  flore  pleno, 
with  dark,  clear,  double 
flowers. 

This  is  a  handsome 
currant,  and  is  generally 
prized  for  ornament,  both 

in  Europe  and  America.      An  excellent  colored  plate  appears  in 

the  Transactions  of  the  London  Horticultural  Society,  Vol.  vii,  p. 

509.     In  its  native  habitat,  the  woods  are  gay  with  its  bloom  in 

springtime. 

43.  R.  GLUTINOSUM,  Benth. 

Young  growth  more  glandular  and  less  pubescent  than  R.  san- 
guineum;  leaves  large,  2-6  inches  (5-15  cm. )  broad,  not  deeply 
lobed,  somewhat  resembling  the  leaves  of  fiubus  odoratus,  not 
downy;  racemes  long,  many -flowered;  calyx  tube  narrowly  bell- 
shaped,  lobes  thin,  membranous,  much  longer  than  the  stamens; 
ovary  glandular,  but  apparently  becoming  nearly  smooth  when 
mature;  fruit  as  large  as  a  gooseberry. 

California  and  the  Pacific  coast. 

According  to  Prof.  E.  L.  Greene,  this  species  blooms  in  Jan- 
uary, and  sanguineum  in  March. 

44.  R.  GORDONIANUM.     (Fig.  105.) 

This  is  a  hybrid  between  E.  sanguineum  and  E.  aureum,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  raised  in  England  many  years  ago.  It  is 
intermediate  between  the  two  in  character.  The  flowers  resemble 
those  of  R.  sanguineum  in  shape,  but  are  lighter  colored,  somewhat 
like  faded  ones  of  that  species;  they  are  produced  in  showy 


*  Popular  Gardening  4:10,  Figure. 


BOTANY   OF    THE    CURRANTS  479 

racemes,  and  are  yearly  odorless.  The  bush  resembles  that  of 
R.  aureum,  and  is  generally  fruitless.  It  is  intermediate  between 
the  two  species  in  hardiness,  being  commonly  injured  at  the 
Arnold  Arboretum,*  though  reported  perfectly  hardy  at  Rochester, 

N.  Y.t 

45.  E.  MALVACEUM,  Smith.     CFig.  106.) 

More  rigid  and  compact  than  B.  sanguineum,  3-6  feet  (1-2 
meters)  high,  all  young  parts,  including  the  peduncles  and  flowers, 
villous-tomentose  and  beset  with  short,  glandular -tipped  hairs; 
leaves  thick,  1-2  inches  (2.5-5  cm.)  broad,  rugose,  .the  upper 
side  hispid,  with  short,  glandular-tipped  hairs,  under  side  white 
tomentose,  somewhat  3-5-lobed,  finely  and  doubly  serrate;  petioles 
short,  but  slightly  dilated  or  ciliate  at  base,  sparingly  beset  with 
short,  glandular  hairs,  which  extend  to  the  veins  beneath;  racemes 
short  and  dense,  the  flowers  small,  nearly  sessile,  yellowish  white 
or  flesh  colored;  bracts  ovate-lanceolate,  tomentose  and  glandular; 
calyx  tube  narrow,  cylindrical,  and  broadest  just  above  the  ovary, 
lobes  small,  short,  not  over  half  as  long  as  the  tube ;  petals  minute, 
white,  roundish,  or  subreniform;  style  shorter  than  the  stamens, 
undivided,  villous;  berry  oval,  %  of  an  inch  (8  mm.)  long,  pur- 
ple, glaucous,  pulp  soft  and  sweet. 

On  the  coast  ranges  from  San  Francisco  Bay  southward. 

Although  resembling  B.  sanguineum,  it  is  less  ornamental  than 
that  species,  the  flowers  being  much  smaller,  with  less  color  and 
borne  in  shorter  and  denser  racemes. 

46.  E.  TORTUOSUM,  Benth. 

Small,  much  branched  shrub,  flowering  before  the  leaves 
appear;  branches  short,  often  tortuous,  with  smooth,  ashy  gray 
bark;  leaves  few  and  small,  cordate  at  base,  5-lobed,  the  younger 
puberulent;  bracts  minute,  half  as  long  as  the  pedicels;  racemes 
terminal,  Jf-1  inch  (12-25  mm.)  long,  8-15 -flowered,  minutely 
puberulent,  subtended  by  persistent  brown  scales;  pedicels  spread- 
ing, 2-4  millimeters  long;  calyx  tube  cylindrical,  glabrous,  about 
4  millimeters  long;  lobes  ovate,  reflexed,  half  as  long  as  the 
tube;  petals  ovate,  half  as  long  as  the  calyx  lobes;  stamens  as 
long  as  the  petals;  style  slightly  2-cleft  at  apex;  fruit  small, 
apparently  glandular,  black  and  dry.J 

Confined  to  southern  California. 


*  Garden  and  Forest  6:245. 
t  Horticulturist  1854 : 142. 

^Described  from  an  imperfect  specimen,  supplemented   by  description  given 
by  Walpers,  Repertorium,  5:822. 


Fig.  106.    XibesmalvaceUm(X%).  Fi«.  107.    Ribes  Americanum  (X%\ 


THE  AMERICAN    BLACK   CURRANT  481 

B.  Palmeri,  V.  &  E.,  may  belong  here.  I  have  neither  had 
access  to  the  description  nor  specimens,  but  imperfect  specimens 
th  the  herbarium  of  the  Missouri  Botanic  Garden,  labeled  Pal- 
meri, have  been  referred  to  tortuosum. 

47.  R.   AMERICANUM,    Mill.     -B.  floridum.     L'Her.     Wild    Black 

Currant.     (Fig.  107.) 

Bush  low  and  spreading,  2-5  feet  (6-15  decimeters)  high; 
branches  long  and  somewhat  drooping,  slightly  angular;  leaves 
sharply  3-5-lobed,  the  lobes  acute,  coarsely  and  doubly  serrate, 
bearing  bright  yellow  resinous  dots,  few  on  the  upper,  many  on 
the  lower  side,  scarcely  pubescent  except  the  petioles  and  veins 
beneath;  racemes  long,  pendulous,  many-flowered;  peduncles, 
bracts  and  pedicels  downy-pubescent  without  glandular-tipped 
hairs,  bracts  linear,  longer  than  the  pedicels;  flowers  greenish 
white  or  yellow,  /£-%  inch  (6-10  mm.)  long;  calyx  tube  bell- 
shaped  or  gradually  broadening,  barely  pubescent,  but  not  resinous, 
dotted;  lobes  large,  obovate,  pubescent,  but  thin,  petal-like; 
petals  and  stamens  nearly  as  long  as  the  calyx  lobes;  ovary 
smooth;  fruit  medium  sized,  roundish  oval,  smooth,  black,  simi- 
lar to  the  European  black  currant  in  flavor. 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  England,  south  to  Virginia,  and  west- 
ward to  Colorado  and  Manitoba. 

This  species  is  seldom  cultivated,  but  apparently  deserves  to 
be.  It  forms  a  graceful,  spreading  bush,  with  luxuriant  light 
green  foliage  and  long  drooping  racemes.  Dippel,*  under  the 
name  E.  intermedium,  describes  a  hybrid  between  this  species 
and  B.  nigrum,  which  has  long  been  in  cultivation  in  Bohemian 
gardens. 

48.  R.  MOGOLLONIGUM,  Greene. 

This  is  described  as  follows  :f  "Glabrous  and  sparingly  glandu- 
lar, 6-10  feet  (18-30  decimeters)  high;  leaves  1-3  inches  (2.5- 
7.5  cm.)  wide,  5-lobed;  the  lobes  triangular,  doubly  serrate; 
petioles  one  inch  long;  racemes  few-flowered,  subcapitate,  on 
erect  peduncles  which  surpass  the  petioles;  bracts  rhombic -ovate, 
the  lowest  somewhat  spatulate,  their  margins  glandular;  flowers 
small;  ovaries  clothed  with  stalked  glands;  calyx-tube  very  short; 
sepals  ovate -oblong,  campanulate- spreading,  greenish  and  marked 
with  dark  green  or  purplish  veins;  petals  white,  spatulate,  very 
small;  berry  smooth,  black,  edible." 


*Handbuch  der  Laubholzkunde,  3:296. 
fBull.  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  8:121. 
EE 


482 


BUSH-FRUITS 


Collected  on  the  Mogollon  Mountains,  New  Mexico. 
This  is  plainly  the  western  representative  of  R.  Americanum. 
It  appears  to  differ  chiefly  in  the  shorter  and  more  erect  racemes, 


Fig.  108.    Ribes  aureum  (XX) .        Fig.  109.    Ribes  aureum  t enuiflorum  ( X%) . 


and  in  the  glandular  character  of  the  ovaries  and  margins  of  the 
bracts. 

49.  R.  AUREUM,  Pursh.     Missouri,  Flowering,  Golden,  or  Buffalo 

Currant.     (Fig.  108.) 

Free-growing  shrub,  4-6  feet  (1-2  meters)  high,  sprouting  from 
the  roots;  branches  graceful  and  drooping;  young  shoots  very  mi- 
nutely pubescent ;  leaves  firm,  smooth  and  shining,  densely  covered, 


THE  FLOWERING   CURRANT  483 

when  very  young,  with  brown  or  yellow  resinous  beads  which  dis- 
appear with  age;  leaves  of  young  shoots  sharply  and  deeply  3-5- 
lobed,  the  lobes  coarsely  and  somewhat  sharply  toothed,  truncate, 
or  very  broadly  wedge-shaped  at  base,  1/^-2  inches  (4-5  cm.) 
broad,  resembling  maple  leaves  in  form ;  leaves  of  bearing  shoots 
smaller  and  narrower  at  base,  commonly  3-lobed,  the  lobes  often 
short,  broad  and  entire;  peduncles  short,  few-flowered,  emerging 
from  clusters  of  leaves ;  bracts  large,  leaf -like,  commonly  exceed- 
ing the  pedicels;  flowers  spicy-scented,  yellow  and  showy;  calyx - 
tube  %-/£  inch  (10-12  mm.)  long,  narrow  and  glabrous,  lobes 
spreading,  broad,  obovate  or  oblong,  obtuse,  one -third  as  long  as 
the  tube;  petals  obovate,  erose,  red,  %-/•£  as  l°ng  as  the  calyx- 
lobes;  stamens  spreading  and  alternating  with  the  petals;  style 
longer,  undivided;  fruit  round  or  oval,  dark  brown  or  black, 
commonly  with  a  bluish  bloom,  flavor  peculiar. 

Var.  TENUIFLORUM*  (Lindl.),  Torrey.     (Fig.  109.) 

Taller,  leaves  thick,  light  green,  broadly  3-5- lobed,  racemes 
longer  and  more  loosely  flowered;  flowers  scentless;  berries 
amber  colored,  approaching  a  pale  cherry-red  when  fully  mature, 
acidulous,  without  aroma. 

Original  distribution. — From  the  Mississippi  Valley  westward  to 
the  Kocky  Mountains.  The  variety  from  somewhat  east  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

For  the  position  of  Ribes  aureum  in  cultivation,  see  Chapters 
XIV  and  XV. 

Many  synonyms  for  the  preceding  species  are  to  be 
met  with  in  horticultural  and  botanical  writings.  The 
following  are  added,  either  on  account  of  having  been 
mentioned  in  American  horticultural  literature,  or  be- 
cause not  easily  found  elsewhere. 

R.  acerifolium,  hort.=rubrum. 
JR.  Beatonii,  hort.=Gordonianum. 
R.  dikuscha,  Tisch.=  nigrum. 


*Professor  Greene  considers  this  western  form  a  distinct  species,  but  Professor 
Piper,  of  Washington,  writes  that  he  has  seen  forms  with  red  fruit,  with  yellow 
fruit,  and  with  black  fruit  growing  close  together,  and  that  all  had  distinctive 
flavors.  The  form  described iby  Rydberg  (Flora  of  Nebraska,  Part  21:71)  as  var. 
chrysococcus,  probably  belongs  to  this  variety. 


484  B  USH-FR  UI TS 

E.  flavum,  Colla  =  aureum. 

E.  leiobotrys,    Koehne  =  aureum. 

E.  Loudoni,  hort.=  Gordonianum. 

E.  migratorum,  Suksdorf  =  rubrum. 

E.  Missouriense,  hort.=Americanum. 

E.  odoratum,  hort.=  aureum. 

E.  resinosum,  Pursh.=  orientale. 

E.  Eusbyi,  Greene,  in  Nat.  Herb.=  pinetorum. 

E.  saxatile,  hort.=  alpinum. 


HYBRIDS 

Numerous  hybrids  have  been  produced  in  the  genus 
Ribes,  the  best  known  being  the  one  'known  as  R. 
Oordonianum  (R.  aureumXsangnineumJ.  Focke*  men- 
tions two  forms  of  R.  nigrum  X  sanguineum;  also  a 
probable  hybrid  between  R.  aureum  and  R.  Ameri- 
canum. 

Prof.  William  Saunderst  has  produced  hybrids  be- 
tween the  black  currant  and  gooseberry,  also  between 
the  black  and  white  currant. 


*Die  Pflanzen-Mischlinge,  p.  151. 

t  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Canada,  1894:139-142. 


PAET   IV 

MISCELLANEOUS     TYPES 


CHAPTEE     XIX 

OTHER    SPECIES    OF   BUSH -FRUITS 

Although  the  foregoing  pages  describe  all  the  bush- 
fruits  which  have  any  commercial  importance  in  culti- 
vation, there  are  certain  other  types  which  are  either 
coming  into  domestication  or  which  are  occasionally 
seen  in  private  gardens.  To  these  we  shall  now  give 
attention. 

BUFFALO    BERRY 

LEPARGYRJEA  ARGENTEA  (Nutt.),  Greene.     Shepherdia  argentea, 

Nutt. 

The  buffalo  berry  is  a  thorny,  deciduous  shrub,  growing  from 
5-20  feet  high,  with  a  whitened  or  silvery  appearance  throughout. 
Its  leaves  are  narrow,  !-!/£  inches  long,  pointed  at  the  base, 
entire,  and  silvery  white  on  both  sides.  The  flowers  are  small, 
yellow  and  dioacious.  The  fruit  is  round  or  ovoid,  scarlet,  or 
more  rarely  yellow,  with  a  single  smooth  seed,  and  a  sprightly  acid 
and  agreeable  flavor.  It  is  borne  in  very  compact  clusters  in  the 
axils  of  the  small  branches,  ripening  in  July,  but  remaining  on 
the  bushes  till  frost,  or  later.  The  plant  occurs  throughout  the 
Plains,  westward  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  from  the 
Saskatchewan  southward  to  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico. 

The  name  buffalo  berry  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 

(485) 


486  BUSH-FRUITS 

custom  of  eating  the  berries  as  a  sauce  with  buffalo  meat.  It  has 
also  been  known  as  rabbit  berry  and  blood  berry,  while  Crozier 
states*  that  it  has  even  been  improperly  called  cornelian  cherry. 
A  writer  in  the  Gardener's  Monthlyt  speaks  of  it  as  the  Nebraska 
currant. 

The  buffalo  berry  has  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  remaining  a 
new  fruit  for  a  very  long  time.  In  1841  William  Oakes,  in  dis- 
cussing the  advance  of  spring  in  eastern  Massachusetts,  mentions 
the  buffalo  berry,  and  incidentally  states  that  it  was  then  fre- 
quently cultivated.  This  was  the  same  year  that  our  earliest  cul- 
tivated blackberry  made  its  first  appearance  on  the  exhibition 
tables  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  and  some  years 
before  either  the  black  raspberry  or  the  blackberry  came  into 
general  cultivation.  Yet  we  are  still  talking  about  the  buffalo 
berry  as  a  new  fruit  which  ought  to  be  introduced.  Fuller,  in  his 
"Small  Fruit  Culturist,"  published  in  1867,  gives  a  full  account  of 
it.  The  fruit  possesses  good  qualities,  and  the  plant  is  useful  in 
ornamental  planting,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  reach  a  wide  sphere  of 
usefulness  as  a  fruit -producing  plant,  unless  it  should  be  in 
localities  where  other  garden  fruits  fail.  Professor  N.  E.  Han- 
sen,  of  South  Dakota,  writes  that  he  considers  it  of  promise  only 
where  the  currant  does  not  do  well.  Attempts  to  establish  it  in 
Nebraska  have  thus  far  met  with  indifferent  results.  The  fruit  is 
abundant,  but  its  large  seed  and  the  thorny  habit  of  the  plant  are 
against  it.  Plants  vary  in  the  latter  regard,  and  careful  selection 
might  develop  forms  comparatively  free  from  thorns.  The  berries 
vary  much  in  size,  commonly  being  about  the  size  of  currants, 
though  sometimes  as  large  as  small  gooseberries.  It  commonly 
occurs  along  the  borders  of  streams,  which  indicates  that  it  may 
need  a  moist  soil.  It  is  sometimes  found  on  loose,  dry  sand,  but 
with  available  moisture  beneath.  Its  early-blooming  period  may 
subject  it  to  injury  from  spring  frosts,  hence  a  cool  northern 
slope  would  be  desirable. 

Plants  are  propagated  from  suckers,   cuttings  or  seeds.     The 

*Amer.  Garden,  11:650. 
t!873:23. 


THE  BUFFALO   BERRY  487 

suckers  are  produced  but  sparingly,  but  are  readily  separated 
whenever  found.  From  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  plants 
produced  from  suckers  proved  to  be  all  staminate,  Professor  S.  B. 
Greene  was  lead  to  infer*  that  perhaps  the  staminate  plants  pro- 
duce more  suckers  than  the  pistillate.  He  still  thinks  that  this 
may  be  true,  though  he  writes  that  later  observations  have  not 
enabled  him  to  settle  the  point  definitely.  It  is  said  to  grow 
readily  from  cuttings  taken  in  autumn  and  treated  like  grape  and 
currant  cuttings.  Seeds  should  be  planted  when  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
or  mixed  with  sand  and  planted  the  following  spring.  Fuller 
statest  that  the  best  way  is  to  plant  at  once  in  rows,  one  or  two 
inches  deep,  transplanting  into  nursery  rows  when  one  year  old. 
He  says  that  they  will  usually  bloom  the  third  year  from  seed, 
when  the  staminate  and  pistillate  plants  can  be  readily  marked 
or  separated. 

In  planting,  it  is  important  to  see  that  both  sexes  are  placed 
together;  otherwise  no  fruit  can  be  produced.  Failure  has  often 
resulted  from  inattention  to  this  detail.  Professor  L.  C.  Corbett 
has  pointed  outt  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  leave  the  young  plants 
until  they  flower  to  determine  their  sex.  He  says:  "There  is 
another  and  easier  way  of  distinguishing  the  staminate  from  the 
pistillate  plants;  *.  e.,  by  bud  characters  while  in  a  dormant  con- 
dition. With  care  and  experience  one  can  readily  separate  the 
two."  In  the  pistillate  plants  the  buds  are  smaller,  more  slender, 
and  arranged  in  less  compact  clusters. 

The  buffalo  berry  is  worth  planting  as  an  ornamental  shrub 
or  small  tree.  Its  silvery  foliage  is  distinct  and  attractive,  and 
its  loads  of  fruit,  if  not  taken  by  birds,  render  it  a  showy  object 
throughout  the  closing  months  of  the  year.  It  appears  to  be 
perfectly  hardy  in  the  northern  states  when  once  established. 

The  fruit  has  a  sprightly,  agreeable  flavor,  which  makes  it 
pleasant  to  eat  from  the  hand.  It  dries,  but  keeps  indefinitely. 
Fruit  which  has  laid  in  my  desk  for  several  years  still  retains  its 


*Bull.  18.  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  129. 
tSmall  Fruit  Culturist,  252. 
jAmer.  Gardening,  1895:45. 


488  BUSH-FRUITS 

sprightliness.  Frost  is  said  to  greatly  improve  its  quality,  and  it 
may  be  gathered  from  the  bushes  at  any  time  during  winter,  if 
not  previously  taken  by  birds.  It  makes  a  very  good  jelly,  and 
is  said  to  be  gathered  in  quantities  by  the  Navajo  Indians,  who 
probably  dry  it. 

The  plants  appear  to  be  very  productive,  for  they  are  loaded 
with  berries,  yet  Dr.  Hoskins  reports*  that  with  him  they  yield 
about  one -fourth  as  much  as  barberries,  and  that  the  fruit  is 
not  very  good.  It  may  prove  less  fruitful  in  cultivation  than  in 
its  native  haunts. 

THE    GOUMI     (Fig.    110) 
EL^AGNUS    LONGIPES,    Gray. 

The  goumi  is  a  low,  bushy  shrub,  with  dark  gray  or  rusty 
brown  branches,  commonly  unarmed,  though  sometimes  bearing 
spines.  The  leaves  are  green  above,  silvery  beneath,  and 
sprinkled  with  dark  colored  spots.  The  flowers  are  small,  yel- 
lowish within,  silvery  and  roughly  scurfy  on  the  outside,  often 
dark-dotted  like  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  They  appear 
by  the  middle  of  May,  and  are  borne  at  the  base  of  short  side 
shoots  of  the  current  season's  growth.  The  fruit  is  oval,  blunt, 
or  slightly  flattened  at  the  ends,  half  an  inch  or  more  in  length, 
cinnabar-red  or  orange  colored,  and  covered  with  silvery  white 
dots.  It  ripens  in  July,  and  is  juicy  and  fine  looking,  but  at 
first  very  astringent,  leaving  a  disagreeable  taste  in  the  mouth. 
This  quality  disappears  to  some  extent  when  the  fruit  is  fully 
ripened. 

The  plant  grows  wild  in  eastern  Asia,  from  Himalaya  and 
Nepal,  north  to  China  and  Japan.  It  appears  to  have  been  first 
brought  to  notice  in  England  in  1873,  having  been  exhibited 
before  the  Royal  Botanical  and  Eoyal  Horticultural  Societies  that 
year.  William  Falconer  reports!  that  in  August,  1889,  Ellwanger 
&  Barry  had  but  a  single  plant  of  it.  Eeports  differ  as  to  the 

*Rural  New-Yorker,  1895:826. 
tAmerican  Garden,  11:119. 


490  BUSH-FRUITS 

edible  quality  of  the  fruit.  William  Falconer,  in  the  note  above 
referred  to,  says  that  it  is  cooked  and  used  as  a  sauce  with 
meat,  especially  chicken,  and  "it  is  one  of  the  most  delicious 
sauces  that  ever  tickled  the  human  palate."  Others  do  not  speak 
so  favorably  of  it,  saying  that  cooking  increases  its  disagreeable 
astringent  qualities.  Professor  Bailey  says*  that  he  enjoys  eat- 
ing the  fruit  from  the  bushes  when  fully  ripe,  but  has  not  tried 
it  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  too  acid  for  dessert,  being  better 
adapted  to  uses  like  those  of  the  cranberry.  It  is  also  recom- 
mended for  jelly. 

The  plant  is  perfectly  hardy  in  the  eastern  states,  and  im- 
mensely productive.  Its  close  relation  to  the  so-called  Russian 
olive,  Elceagnus  angustifolia,  which  is  a  very  reliable  tree  through- 
out the  northwest,  indicates  that  it  may  also  prove  hardy  in  that 
region.  It  is  said  to  succeed  well  in  California  on  various  soils. 
In  regard  to  propagation,  Professor  Bailey  says:*  "The  goumi 
grows  readily  from  seeds.  These  should  be  sown  or  stratified  in 
summer,  before  they  become  dry,  and  allowed  to  freeze  the  fol- 
lowing winter.  The  next  spring  they  should  germinate  freely. 
Cuttings  of  the  half-ripened  wood  strike  readily  in  June  or  July, 
if  handled  in  frames." 

The  goumi  is  certainly  a  promising  ornamental  plant.  Its 
fruit  is  attractive  while  it  lasts,  and  the  foliage  contrasts  well 
with  that  of  other  plants.  In  nurseries  the  plant  is  sometimes 
known  as  Elceagnus  edulis,  and  in  various  places  it  has  received 
mention  under  the  name  Elceagnus  pungens. 

A  closely  related  species,  Elceagnus  umbellata,  also  known 
under  the  name  "Silver  Thorn,"  has  been  sometimes  sold  for 
Elceagnus  longipes,  and  in  other  cases  sold  under  its  right  name. 
This  is  larger,  more  open  and  more  thorny  than  the  goumi,  with 
lighter  colored  branches,  and  its  fruit,  which  is  smaller  and 
possesses  no  value,  ripens  later.  The  plant  possesses  about 
the  same  ornamental  qualities  as  E.  longipes,  but  according  to 
Dippel,t  is  less  hardy  in  Germany. 


*Bull._117,  Cornell  Univ.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  383. 
tHandbuch  der  Laubholzkunde,  3  : 207. 


THE   HUCKLEBERRY  FAMILY  491 


HUCKLEBERRIES 

The  huckleberries  belong  to  the  Heath  family,  or  Ericaceae, 
which  includes  a  great  many  delightful  wild  wood  plants,  such  as 
the  wintergreen,  the  trailing  ajbutus,  the  heather,  the  mountain 
laurel,  and  the  rhododendrons.  In  spite  of  the  beauty  and 
attractive  graces  displayed  by  so  many  of  these  plants,  they  belong 
to  a  modest  and  retiring  family.  They  seldom  mingle  among  the 
crowds  of  the  open  country,  but  withdraw  to  the  quiet,  shaded 
nooks  of  moist  woods  and  mossy  swamps,  or  climb  to  bare  and 
rocky  heights,  where  the  solitude  is  even  more  impressive.  So 
marked  is  this  inherent  shyness  that  most  members  of  the  family 
do  not  take  kindly  to  cultivation.  They  pine  for  their  woodland 
glens  or  rocky  crags,  no  matter  how  tender  the  care  bestowed  upon 
them.  Hence  it  happens  that  the  huckleberries,  though  among 
the  finest  of  fruits,  and  among  the  most  important-  in  the  wild 
state,  are  almost  unknown  in  cultivation. 

There  are  several  causes  which  have  prevented  them  from 
receiving  more  attention.  In  the  first  place,  the  fruit  grows  wild 
in  abundance  over  large  portions  of  the  country.  Added  to  this 
has  been  the  uncertainty  of  success  in  transplanting,  which  with 
some  species  is  considerable,  and  which  is  evidently  supposed  to 
be  much  greater  with  all  than  it  really  is.  But  the  greatest  draw- 
back has  undoubtedly  been  the  difficulty  experienced  in  propagat- 
ing. The  spread  of  any  plant  in  cultivation  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  nurserymen,  and  one  which  they  find  it  hard  and  expen- 
sive to  propagate  is  not  likely  to  become  widely  cultivated. 

The  wild  berry  fields  are  yearly  growing  less,  and  while  many 
mountainous  tracts  are  doubtless  worth  more  as  huckleberry 
patches  than  for  any  other  purpose,  unless  it  be  to  produce 
forests,  it  is  evident  that  on  most  of  this  land  the  huckleberry 
must  give  place  to  something  else  as  time  goes  on  and  civilization 
and  agriculture  improve.  But  the  huckleberry  is  too  fine  a  fruit 
to  lose,  and  it  is  a  source  of  gratification  to  note  that  there  are 
wide-awake  and  far-seeing  men  who  are  learning  to  grow  it,  who 
are  seeking  to  improve  it  by  careful  selection,  and  who  are  finding 
out  its  merits  as  a  garden  plant.  The  future  of  this  fruit  ought 


492  BUSH-FRUITS 

to  be  assured,  for  it  certainly  is  a  promising  one.  Though  modest 
and  retiring,  it  has  far  more  graces  than  most  of  our  garden  fruits, 
and  no  menacing  thorns  stand  ready  to  repel  the  caress  of  its 
admirers. 

Commercially,  the  huckleberry  is  a  fruit  of  very  considerable 
importance,  being  gathered  and  shipped  into  the  city  markets  in 
large  quantities.  The  receipts  in  New  York  city  are  said  to 
exceed  2,000  bushels  per  day  in  the  height  of  the  season,  while 
the  entire  quantity  sold  is  estimated  to  be  ten  times  that  of  any 
other  berry.*  The  annual  huckleberry  crop  of  Wisconsin  has 
been  estimated  at  20,000  bushels,  valued  at  between  $60,000  and 
$80,000. 

So  little  has  been  done  with  this  fruit  that  not  much  can  be 
said  of  the  soil  and  location  best  adapted  to  its  culture,  other  than 
that  the  nearer  the  approach  to  the  normal  conditions  of  the  spe- 
cies in  hand,  the  more  likely  are  the  results  to  be  satisfactory. 
With  the  high -bush  or  swamp  varieties,  a  moist,  sandy  loam  or 
mucky  soil  would  seem  to  be  desirable.  They  have  been  found  to 
transplant  readily  when  grown  in  deep,  sandy  soil.  With  the  low 
blueberries,  which  grow  upon  high,  rocky  mountains,  often  with 
but  a  few  inches  of  mould  and  broken  stones  covering  the  solid 
rock  beneath,  a  near  approach  to  these  conditions  would  seem  to 
offer  the  best  chance  of  success.  The  high  varieties,  at  least, 
seem  to  be  benefited  as  much  as  other  fruits  by  a  dressing  of  well- 
rotted  manure. 

As  before  intimated,  the  difficulty  of  propagation  is  the  chief 
hindrance  to  extensive  cultivation  of  these  fruits,  yet  with  care 
and  skill  the  operation  becomes  entirely  feasible.  On  this  point 
there  is  probably  no  better  authority  in  the  United  States  than 
Jackson  Dawson,  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  take  his  direc- 
tions. He  says:f 

"The  growing  of  huckleberries  and  blueberries  from  seed 
requires  close  attention,  and  can  hardly  be  carried  on  success- 
fully without  a  greenhouse  or  frame.  The  best  soil  to  use  for 
them  is  sand  and  loam  in  equal  parts,  care  being  taken  that  the 
sand  is  free  from  clay  or  iron.  Shallow  earthen  pans  are  better 

*Amer.  Gar.  12:18,565. 
tGarden  and  Forest,  1:183. 


PROPAGATING    HUCKLEBERRIES  493 

for  the  seed  than  boxes,  as  there  is  less  danger  from  fungi,  but 
after  the  first  transplanting  boxes  may  be  used.  As  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  received,  it  should  be  macerated  in  water  for  several 
days,  so  as  to  separate  it  from  the  pulp,  and  then  washed  clean. 
If  early  in  the  season,  seeds  of  the  early  varieties  may  be  sown 
at  once,  and  will  come  up  in  a  few  weeks,  but  as  the  plants  will 
make  little  growth,  they  will  need  careful  handling  to  keep  them 
over  the  first  winter.  It  is  better  to  wash  out  the  seed  and  mix 
with  fine,  moist  sand,  and  keep  in  a  cool  pit  or  frame  until  the 
days  begin  to  lengthen,  say  about  the  middle  of  January.  Then 
prepare  the  seed  pans  or  pots  and  insure  free  drainage  by  using 
sphagnum  or  coarse  sif tings  of  peat.  Firm  the  soil  well  and 
give  a  gentle  watering  with  a  fine  hose.  When  the  soil  has  set- 
tled, scatter  the  seeds  thickly  and  evenly  over  the  surface,  and 
give  the  lightest  possible  covering.  Ttien  add  a  layer  of  fine 
sphagnum,  syringe  lightly,  and  set  the  plants  in  a  temperature  of 
60°  to  .65°.  After  sowing,  if  the  seed  is  not  allowed  to  become 
dry,  it  will  usually  come  up  in  from  five  to  six  weeks,  although  I 
have  known  it  to  lie  in  the  ground  a  year  and  then  germinate. 
The  pans  should  be  examined  now  and  then,  and  as  soon  as  the 
seed  shows  signs  of  germination  the  coarsest  of  the  moss  should 
be  removed.  When  the  plants  have  made  the  first  rough  leaf, 
they  should  be  pricked  off  thickly  in  shallow  boxes  and  fresh 
soil,  prepared  and  drained  as  for  seed.  They  should  be  syringed 
every  day  and  kept  growing  in  a  high  temperature  and  moist 
atmosphere.  As  soon  as  they  have  covered  the  ground  they 
should  be  again  transplanted.  After  the  third  pricking  out,  if 
everything  has  been  carefully  attended  to,  they  will  be  growing 
strongly,  and  will  neted  more  air  and  less  moisture,  to  harden 
them  off  gradually.  The  frequent  transplanting  in  fresh  soil  each 
time  keeps  the  plants  from  damping  off  and  encourages  good 
root -growth.  About  the  first  of  September  they  can  be  removed 
to  a  coldframe  or  pit  in  some  sheltered  situation,  where  they 
should  have  plenty  of  air  every  pleasant  day,  but  should  be  cov- 
ered at  night  to  keep  them  from  frost  as  long  as  possible,  so  that 
they  may  become  ripened  before  going  into  winter  quarters.  As 
winter  sets  in,  they  should  be  covered  with  moss  and  shutters, 
and  will  only  need  airing  once  or  twice  a  month  for  a  few  hours 
to  guard  against  fungus,  which  will  start  even  in  a  coldframe  if 
kept  long  without  air.  About  the  first  of  May  they  can  be 
planted  in  prepared  beds  of  peaty  soil  or  a  light,  sandy  soil  of 
good  depth.  If  dry  weather  sets  in  they  will  require  a  good  syr- 
inging toward  evening,  as  the  plants  are  not  deeply  rooted  yet, 
and  delicate  rootlets  are  soon  destroyed  if  allowed  to  dry.  After 
the  middle  of  August  the  syringing  may  be  discontinued,  so  that 
the  plants  may  ripen  well.  When  freezing  weather  comes,  the 


494  BUSH-FRUITS 

beds  should  be  mulched  with  pine  needles,  oak  leaves,  or  other 
similar  material,  to  keep  the  plants  from  heaving.  After  the 
second  year  they  are  transplanted  to  the  nursery,  and  need  only 
ordinary  care.  When  finally  removed  they  will  be  found  to  trans- 
plant with  the  greatest  of  ease  and  no  perceptible  loss. 

"The  huckleberries  and  blueberries  can  also  be  propagated 
from  cuttings  of  the  underground  stems  or  stolons  which  are 
found  on  many  varieties.  These  can  be  taken  up  in  the  autumn, 
cut  in  lengths  of  two  or  three  inches,  planted  in  boxes  of  sandy 
peat  or  loam,  and  kept  in  a  cool  pit  or  house,  away  from  severe 
frost,  until  about  the  1st  of  February.  They  then  require  a  gentle 
heat  and  moisture  until  they  start.  When  they  have  made  a  good 
growth,  they  should  be  hardened  off  and  treated  as  other  hard- 
wood plants,  but,  like  other  members  of  the  Heath  family,  they 
cannot  endure  saturation  while  growing  under  artificial  treatment. 

"These  plants  can  also  be  grown  by  layers,  by  bending  down 
the  branches  and  tonguing,  as  with  other  hard -wood  plants.  A 
good  moist  mulch  of  moss  around  the  young  layers  will  accelerate 
the  rooting.  I  have  not  as  yet  propagated  them  from  cuttings  or 
grafting,  but  I  see  no  reason  why  this  should  not  be  done  with 
cuttings  of  the  young  wood,  just  as  other  ericaceous  plants  are 
propagated." 

While  some  satisfactory  method  of  propagation  is  absolutely 
essential,  if  this  fruit  is  ever  to  become  widely  grown  or  greatly 
improved,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  farmer  or  householder  should 
follow  these  methods  in  order  to  grow  huckleberries  in  his  own 
garden.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  wild  bushes  are  easily 
accessible,  and  may  be  transferred  to  the  garden.  Bushes  growing 
in  dry  soil  or  open  pastures  should  be  selected  in  preference  to 
those  found  in  swamps.  Mr.  Dawson  prefers  small  bushes,  not 
over  a  foot  high,  and  takes  them  up  early  in  September.  They 
are  immediately  planted  thickly  and  firmly  in  a  well  prepared  bed, 
in  which  a  liberal  proportion  of  sand  and  peat  is  mingled  with 
loam,  and  protected  with  a  heavy  mulch.  They  remain  in  this 
bed  during  the  following  summer,  being  well  watered  when  the 
weather  is  dry,  and  the  ground  kept  well  cultivated.  Under  this 
treatment  they  have  an  abundance  of  fine  roots  by  the  second 
spring,  and  can  be  transplanted  where  they  are  to  remain  with 
perfect  ease  and  safety.  Mr.  Dawson  states  that  he  has  handled 
thousands  of  them  in  this  way  with  perfect  success.  His  reason 
for  transplanting  early  in  September  is  that  new  roots  are  then. 


SUCCESS    WITH   HUCKLEBERRIES  495 

formed  before  winter,  and  if  well  mulched,  they  are  ready  for  a 
strong  start  in  spring. 

Others  prefer  to  remove  the  plants  in  spring.  A.  S.  Fuller 
states*  that  there  is  no  risk  in  moving  plants  from  high  ground 
with  a  ball  of  earth  attached,  early  in  spring,  and  that  not  a  plant 
had  failed  out  of  many  hundreds  so  handled.  Joseph  Meehan  also 
reports  successt  in  transplanting  them  from  the  woods  in  spring, 
by  cutting  back  one -half.  Nearly  all  the  plants  bore  fruit  the 
following  year.  Mr.  Fuller  was  a  firm  friend  of  the  huckleberry, 
and  greatly  lamented  the  neglect  which  it  has  suffered.  In  his 
work  on  small  fruits,  and  in  various  other  places,  he  urged  the 
importance  of  bringing  it  into  more  common  cultivation.  He 
states  that  with  ordinary  care  a  plantation  will  last  a  lifetime. 

Although  so  little  known  in  cultivation,  enough  instances  of 
success  with  the  high-bush  blueberry,  Vaccinmm  corymbosum,  are 
on  record  that  it  seems  perfectly  safe  to  recommend  it.  In  an 
article  in  American  Garden,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  287,  Jackson  Dawson 
says:  "A  number  of  growers  in  Massachusetts  are  becoming 
interested  in  the  cultivation  of  this  plant,  and  are  on  the  lookout 
for  large  varieties,  so  we  may  soon  expect  to  see  blueberries  as 
large  as  cherries.  Mr.  Huntington,  of  Lynn,  has  now  more  than 
a  dozen  well-marked  varieties  of  good  size,  some  being  one -half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Mr.  Hervey,  of  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  has  also  been  growing  blueberries  as  garden  fruits  for 
several  years.  He  considers  them  a  success,  and  would  not  be 
without  them  for  twice  their  cost.  Benjamin  Smith,  of  Cambridge, 
secretary  of  the  Pomological  Society,  has  grown  them  a  number  of 
years,  and  says  a  few  bushes  give  his  family  plenty  of  berries  dur- 
ing the  season.  From  a  small  row  transplanted  last  spring,  my 
boys  gathered  8  to  10  quarts  of  fruit  during  the  summer." 

The  following  letter  written  to  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment 
Station:}:  by  W.  J.  Scott,  of  Bridgewater,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y., 
gives  another  instance  of  success.  He  says:  "About  fifteen  years 
ago  I  planted  a  quantity  of  huckleberry  bushes  on  my  farm,  tak- 

*Amer.  Garden,  1888:186. 
tPopular  Gardening  6:41. 
tAnn.  Kept.  1883:287. 


496  B  USH-FR  UITS 

ing  them  from  a  cold,  wet  swamp.  My  soil  is  dry  and  gravelly — 
good  corn  land.  The  plants  were  of  both  the  high -bush  and  the 
low  kind.  They  have  borne  abundantly,  and  we  now  have  huckle- 
berries by  the  bushel  a  good  part  of  the  season.  The  bushes  grow 
taller  and  better  than  those  in  the  swamp,  and  the  berries  are  a 
great  deal  larger  on  both  the  high  and  low  bushes."  Attempts  to 
grow  it  at  the  Station  have  proved  less  satisfactory.  Under  date 
of  August  18,  1896,  Professor  S.  A.  Beach  writes:  "The  heavy  clay 
soil  upon  which  our  small  fruits  are  grown  at  this  Station  does  not 
appear  to  be  at  all  favorably  to  the  huckleberry,  None  of  the 
plants  which  are  mentioned  in  the  reports  of  1882-3-5  are  now 
alive.  We  have  made  several  attempts  to  grow  this  fruit  from 
seed  and  from  rooted  plants,  but  so  far  the  results  have  not  been 
encouraging." 

The  best  success  in  growing  the  low  blueberries,  like  Vaccinium 
Pennsylvanicum,  has  apparently  been,  not  with  ordinary  garden 
culture,  but  by  transferring  clumps  of  the  plants  to  open  pastures 
or  a  similar  location,  mulching,  and  aiming  to  provide  them  with 
nearly  natural  conditions.  This  is  said  to  have  been  done  to  a 
limited  extent  in  New  England.  As  found  wild,  the  low  blue- 
berries are  much  benefited  by  occasionally  burning  over  the 
ground.  The  most  rational  system  of  management  may  therefore 
be  a  systematic  burning  of  these  wild  tracts,  as  often  as  needed, 
with  some  care  in  aiding  the  plants  to  take  full  possession  of 
the  ground. 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  systematic  treatment  of 
natural  huckleberry  land  should  not  yield  as  good  returns  as  any 
other  horticultural  operation.  An  interesting  instance  of  this  kind 
is  reported  from  Michigan.*  A  farm  of  eighty  acres,  having  ten 
or  fifteen  acres  of  huckleberry  swamp  on  it,  changed  hands  at  a 
lower  price  than  otherwise,  by  reason  of  this  "waste"  tract.  After 
a  vigorous  campaign  against  berry-pickers,  to  establish  his  rights 
of  proprietorship,  the  owner,  in  1880,  sold  fruit  to  the  amount  of 
$700,  and  nearly  as  much  in  1881.  In  other  words,  this  ten  or 
fifteen  acres  of  land,  which  was  supposed  to  be  a  detriment  to  the 
place,  had  yielded  more  money  than  all  the  rest  of  the  farm.  Such 

*Mich.  State  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.  1881:231. 


BOTANY  OF    THE  HUCKLEBERRIES  497 

swamps  might  be  easily  improved  by  supplementary  planting 
when  the  stand  of  bushes  is  imperfect. 

On  the  whole,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  huckleberry 
should  not  acquire  a  prominent  place  among  the  cultivated  fruits 
of  our  gardens,  and  in  its  natural  habitats  become  a  source  of 
very  considerable  profit.  Its  successful  culture  will  doubtless 
be  chiefly  confined  to  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  principally 
to  the  Allegheny  region  and  Atlantic  coast.  The  possibilities  in 
the  cooler  Eocky  Mountain  regions,  or  on  the  moist  north  Pacific 
slopes,  are  unknown.  So  far  as  reported,  all  trials  to  grow  the 
huckleberry  on  the  Plains  have  resulted  in  failure. 

The  name  huckleberry  is  applied  as  a  generic  term  to  cover 
the  fruit  of  all  species  of  the  two  genera,  Gaylussacia  and  Vaccin- 
ium.  In  a  restricted  sense,  it  is  used  locally  to  designate  one  or 
more  species  of  the  former  genus,  the  name  blueberry  being  then 
applied  to  fruit  of  Vaccinium  species.  In  other  cases  the  term 
huckleberry  is  applied  to  black-fruited  species  of  either  genus. 
The  more  general  custom  is  to  apply  the  name  huckleberry  to 
the  fruit  of  all. 

The  most  important  difference  between  these  two  genera  is  that 
in  Gaylussacia  the  fruit  is  ten-celled,  each  cell  containing  a  single 
seed,  or  properly  a  little  stone,  while  in  Vaccinium  there  are  sev- 
eral seeds  in  each  cell,  these  being  small,  and  the  fruit  forming  a 
pulpy  berry.  The  seeds  of  the  former,  while  less  numerous,  are 
far  more  troublesome  than  those  of  the  latter.  The  leaves  and 
branchlets  of  Gaylussacia  are  clammy  with  resinous  dots  when 
young. 

Many  species  belonging  to  these  two  genera  are  known,  chiefly 
in  America,  but  only  a  few  need  be  considered  here.  The  follow- 
ing are  most  important  as  fruit -bearing  plants,  with  possible 
adaptibility  to  garden  culture. 

GAYLUSSACIA  FRONDOSA  (L.)  Torr.  &  Gray.     Blue  Tangleberry  or 

Dangleberry. 

This  is  a  shrub  growing  from  3  to  5  feet  high,  with  slender, 
divergent  branches,  which  in  the  new  growth  are  reddish  yel- 
low, while  the  older  wood  is  covered  with  ashy  gray  bark.  Its 
leaves  are  pale  and  glaucous  or  white  beneath.  The  flowers  are 
borne  in  long,  loose,  drooping  racemes.  The  fruit  is  large,  sweet, 

FF 


498  BUSH-FRUITS 

and  pleasant,  with  a  slight  acidity,  dark  blue  with  a  bluish  white 
bloom,  and  ripening  late. 

The  species  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  Eng- 
land to  Florida  and  westward  to  Kentucky  and  Louisiana.  In  New 
England  it  is  said  to  occur  only  near  the  coast.  By  some  this  is 
considered  very  promising  for  cultivation.  It  grows  more  readily 
under  culture  than  the  following  species,  but  at  the  Arnold  Arbor- 
etum, and  in  that  locality  generally,  it  is  said  to  be  unproductive.* 

GAYLUSSACIA  RESINOSA  (Ait.),  Torr.  &  Gray.     Black  Huckleberry. 

This  is  a  much  branched,  rigid  shrub,  from  1  to  3  feet  high. 
Its  flowers  are  dull,  reddish  yellow,  and  borne  in  short,  one- 
sided racemes  or  clusters.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  crisp  and  firm, 
shiny  black,  without  bloom.  A  white-fruited  variety  is  occasion- 
ally found,  and  others  are  reported  having  pear-shaped  berries, 
bluish  fruit,  or  that  which  is  covered  with  a  bloom. 

This  species  is  found  in  open  woods,  on  dry,  rocky  hills,  and  in 
swamps,  from  Newfoundland  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  Minne- 
sota and  the  Saskatchewan.  It  is  the  common  black  huckleberry 
of  the  market,  and  is  well  adapted  to  commercial  purposes,  owing 
to  its  firmness  and  consequent  shipping  qualities.  It  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  start  and  transplant  than  some  of  the  other  species,  which 
is  a  serious  disadvantage  to  the  cultivator.  Another  objection  to 
the  fruit  of  this  genus  is  found  in  the  little,  hard,  sharp -edged 
nutlets,  which  give  the  fruit  a  seedy  character.  The  smaller  the 
fruit  the  more  noticeable  this  becomes,  since  there  are  ten  of  these 
stone -like  seeds  in  each  fruit.  I  am  told  that  this  species  is  often 
greatly  injured  by  insect  Iarva3  working  within  the  fruit,  especially 
late  in  the  season. 

VACCINIUM  PENNSYLVANICUM,  Lam.     Low  or  Dwarf  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low -growing,  shrubby  little  plant,  seldom  over  a 
foot  in  height,  with  green,  angular  or  warty  branches.  The 
leaves  are  bristly  serrulate,  smooth  and  shining  on  both  sides, 
and  the  flowers  are  white  or  pale  pink.  The  fruit  is  sweet  and 
fine  flavored,  commonly  blue  with  a  glaucous  bloom,  though  forms 
with  nearly  black  fruit  sometimes  occur. 

This  is  the  earliest  of  the  huckleberries  to  ripen,  and  one  of 
the  finest.  It  is  not  so  firm  as  the  preceding  species,  but  with 
careful  handling  may  be  carried  long  distances,  and  is  exten- 
sively sold  in  market.  It  is  found  upon  dry,  rocky  hillsides  and 
mountains  from  New  Jersey  to  Illinois,  and  northward  to  New- 
foundland and  the  Saskatchewan.  It  has  not  yielded  readily  to 
the  demands  of  cultivation.  The  best  results  have  ordinarily 
come  from  simply  improving  its  natural  conditions. 


*  Garden  and  Forest  7:328. 


BOTANY  OF  THE  HUCKLEBERRIES      499 

VACCINIUM  CANADENSE,  Richards.     Canadian  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low  shrub,  1  to  2  feet  high,  with  light  green  wood,  and 
much  resembling  V.  Pennsylvanicum.  Its  leaves  are  broader, 
entire,  and  downy  on  both  sides,  the  crowded  branchlets  being 
also  downy.  The  fruit  is  blue-black,  ripening  later  than  that  of 
V.  Pennsylvanicum. 

The  species  occurs  in  swamps  and  moist  woods  from  New- 
foundland to  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  and  westward  to 
Minnesota  and  the  Bocky  Mountains.  It  is  primarily  a  northern 
species,  and  not  common  in  the  United  States  except  in  northern 
New  England.  From  there  and  the  Canadian  provinces  it  is 
sent  to  the  Boston  market  in  considerable  quantities  after  the 
home  supply  of  the  preceding  species  is  exhausted. 

VACCINIUM  VACILLANS,  Kalm.    Low  or  Pale  Blueberry. 

This  is  a  low,  glabrous  shrub,  from  1  to  3  feet  high,  with  yel- 
lowish green  stem  and  branchlets.  The  leaves  are  smooth  and 
very  pale  and  glaucous,  at  least  on  the  under  side.  The  berries 
are  large  and  sweet,  generally  with  a  blue  bloom,  though  some- 
times black,  ripening  from  the  last  of  July  to  September.  The 
fruit  is  borne  in  clusters  at  the  end  of  leafless  branches  of  the 
previous  season's  growth,  and  the  plants  are  very  prolific. 

The  species  occurs  chiefly  in  dry  and  sandy  soil,  from  New 
England  to  Michigan  and  Iowa,  and  southward  to  Missouri  and 
North  Carolina.  Growing  as  it  does  in  dry  soils,  being  a  pretty 
little  shrub  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  a  prolific  bearer,  with 
fruit  of  fine  quality,  it  is  one  of  the  species  which  would  seem 
to  be  most  promising  for  cultivation. 

VACCINIUM  CORYMBOSUM,  Linn.    Swamp  Blueberry.    High  Huckle- 
berry.    (Fig.  111.) 

A  tall,  handsome  shrub,  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  with  yellowish 
green  branches  which  turn  to  a  light  gray  with  age,  the  bark  on 
old  stems  becoming  rough  and  peeling  off  in  shreds.  The  leaves 
are  narrow,  mostly  egg-shaped,  either  smooth  or  downy.  The 
flowers  are  large,  and  borne  on  the  extremities  of  the  previous 
year's  growth,  as  in  the  preceding  species.  The  fruit  ripens 
from  August  to  the  latter  part  of  September,  and  is  widely 
variable  in  shape,  size,  color  and  flavor. 

The  species  varies  greatly,  and  several  botanical  varieties  have 
been  described.  It  grows  chiefly  in  swamps  and  moist  woods, 
though  sometimes  found  in  dry,  open  pastures.  It  has  a  wide 
distribution,  occurring  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  North 
America,  from  Newfoundland  to  Louisiana.  It  is  probably  the 
most  promising  of  all  the  huckleberries  for  cultivation.  Experi- 
ence has  proved  that  it  can  be  readily  transplanted  to  garden 


Fig.  111.     High-bush  huckleberry  or  blueberry.     Vaccinium  corymbosum. 


JUNEBERRIES  501 

soil,  and  will  continue  to  thrive  and  fruit.  Being  so  variable  ID 
the  wild  state,  it  offers  the  best  of  opportunities  for  improvement 
and  selection.  Jackson  Dawson  says:  "I  chanced  upon  a  bush 
in  East  Foxboro  last  summer  which  was  12  feet  high,  loaded  with 
berries  of  a  beautiful  blue,  rich,  juicy,  and  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  while  some  were  even  larger.  In  this  swamp  ten  or 
twelve  good  forms  of  fruit  might  have  been  found,  and  by  care- 
ful selection  and  hybridization  there  is  no  reason  why  the  High 
Bush  Blueberry  should  not  become  an  excellent  and  abundant 
fruit,  as  it  is  more  easily  cultivated  than  any  of  the  others."  It 
is  said  not  to  get  wormy,  like  the  Black  Huckleberry. 

JUNEBERRIES 

The  Juneberry  has  received  but  little  attention  in  cultivation, 
though  not  from  any  difficulty  in  growing  it,  as  with  the  huckle- 
berry. The  greatest  impetus  to  its  culture  came  with  the  intro- 
duction of  the  variety  known  as  Success.  This  was  brought  to 
notice  by  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  then  chief  of  the  Division  of  Pomol- 
ogy of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  was 
found  by  him  in  Kansas,!  having  been  brought  from  Illinois, 
where  it  had  been  grown  from  seeds  gathered  in  the  mountains 
of  Pennsylvania.  Mr.  Van  Deman  gave  it  the  name  Success,  and 
began  selling  plants  about  1878.  Some  ten  years  later  the  stock 
was  sold  to  J.  T.  Lovett,  of  New  Jersey. 

The  Juneberry  has  often  been  confused  with  the  huckleberry 
in  parts  of  the  West.  It  was  grown  for  a  number  of  years  by 
Dr.  James  Hall,  of  Davenport,  Iowa,  who,  under  the  name  huckle- 
berry, recommended  its  extensive  planting  as  especially  adapted 
to  that  region.  On  the  strength  of  these  recommendations  many 
wild  blueberry  plants  are  said  to  have  been  sold  throughout  the 
state,  much  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  purchasers.  The  true 
huckleberries  or  blueberries  have  never  succeeded  in  this  region, 
and  only  those  who  were  deceived,  and  got  the  Juneberry  instead, 
obtained  any  real  value  for  their  investment.  On  the  strength  of 
these  misrepresentations,  the  Iowa  State  Horticultural  Society 
passed  resolutions  of  censure,  cautioning  all  persons  against  buy- 

*Garden  and  Forest,  1:184. 

t Annals  of  Horticulture,  Bailey,  1891:51. 


502  BUSH-FRUITS 

ing  or  planting  any  blueberry  or  huckleberry  plants.*  The  Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural  Society  awarded  a  silver  medal  to  Benjamin 
G.  Smith  for  introducing  the  dwarf  Juneberry  into  that  state, t 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  his  plants  were  obtained  from 
Davenport,  Iowa,  whence  it  was  being  so  widely  boomed  as  huckle- 
berry or  blueberry.  The  Juneberry  itself  thrives  well  throughout 
the  West,  especially  the  western  species,  Amelanchier  alnifolia. 

It  is  hard  to  prophesy  regarding  the  future  of  the  Juneberry, 
but  it  will  probably  rank  much  higher  in  the  estimation  of  growers 
than  at  present.  It  thrives  throughout  the  entire  country,  being 
especially  promising  upon  the  Plains,  where  many  of  our  bush 
fruits  do  not  well  succeed.  One  point  of  great  importance  is  its 
ability  to  endure  late  spring  frosts  without  injury.  On  this  point 
one  grower  saysrj  "Frosts  that  killed  potato  tops  to  the  ground 
had  no  effect  in  destroying  even  a  portion  of  this  wonderful 
plant's  product,  even  though  the  frost  came  as  late  as  the  middle 
of  May."  The  fruit  is  mild,  sweet  and  pleasant.  It  lacks  char- 
acter and  sprightliness  as  a  table  fruit,  but  this  defect  is  readily 
overcome  by  adding  a  few  currants,  cherries  or  gooseberries, 
which  are  available  at  the  same  season  of  the  year.  To  be  at  its 
best  it  should  be  used  when  perfectly  fresh,  for  it  suffers  much  in 
flavor  by  standing.  This  may  prevent  it  from  becoming  popular 
as  a  market  berry.  In  fact,  it  ought  to  be  primarily  a  home 
berry.  It  is  so  easily  grown,  and  the  plants  themselves  are  so 
attractive  that  it  may  well  find  place  in  any  home  garden,  how- 
ever small. 

One  grave  obstacle  stands  in  the  way  of  its  successful  culture. 
Every  bird  in  the  region  will  be  there  to  help  harvest  the  fruit. 
Only  two  remedies  are  apparent — either  grow  more  Juneberries 
than  the  birds  can  hold,  or  plant  but  few,  in  close  clumps,  and 
protect  them  with  netting.  Benjamin  G.  Smith  reports  §  having 
been  able  to  keep  the  birds  away  by  scarecrows,  which  were 
changed  in  position  two  or  three  times  a  day.  Experience  with 


*  Trans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.,  1877:203. 
tGardener's  Monthly,  1878  :  306. 
jNebr.  State  Hort.  Soc.  Kept.,  1896:197. 
^Gardener's  Monthly,  1878:306. 


JUNEBERRIES  503 

other  fruit  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  very  lively  scarecrows 
would  be  needed  to  interfere  with  the  work  of  Nebraska  birds.  In 
Europe,  cheap  netting  is  used  for  protecting  cherries  and  similar 
fruits,  and  this  method  could  be  adopted  for  a  few  clumps  of  June- 
berries  with  slight  expense. 

The  productiveness  of  the  dwarf  varieties  is  beyond  dispute. 
The  plants  are  covered  with  a  mass  of  fruit  until  ripe  enough  for 
the  birds  to  consider  it  worth  their  attention.  In  Nebraska  it 
ripens  from  June  10  to  July  4,  in  New  York  somewhat  later.  It 
will  thrive  upon  any  soil,  as  it  is  found  from  the  lowest  swamps 
to  the  highest  mountain  tops,  and  when  once  established  will  care 
for  itself,  if  necessary,  though  it  is,  of  course,  benefited  by  good 
cultivation  and  attention.  It  is  absolutely  hardy,  and  a  planta- 
tion will  continue  to  thrive  and  bear  fruit  almost  indefinitely. 

The  Juneberry  is  said  to  propagate  from  seeds  as  readily  as 
apples.  It  is  more  commonly  multiplied  from  the  sprouts  which 
spring  up  around  the  base  of  the  plants.  One  Iowa  grower 
recommends  root-grafting  it  on  apple  seedlings.*  It  has  been 
recommended  as  a  satisfactory  stock  upon  which  to  graft  the  pear.f 
It  has  also  been  reported  from  Illinois  as  a  particularly  suitable 
stock  for  the  quince, t  causing  the  fruit  to  mature  earlier  and 
endure  the  winter  better. 

Enemies  will  doubtless  appear,  should  the  Juneberry  come  to 
be  generally  cultivated.  Already  it  has  been  notedg  that  the  plum 
curculio  is  frequently  found  among  the  bushes,  and  many  of  the 
fruits  are  stung  by  them.  The  berries  were  also  found  to  be 
injured  by  a  coleopterous  larva,  not  determined. 

The  different  species  are  so  variable  in  the  wild  state  that 
varieties  would  doubtless  multiply  rapidly  were  they  to  come  into 
general  cultivation.  Already  several  have  been  named.  The  one 
named  Success,  previously  referred  to,  is  doubtless  the  most 
widely  known,  but  Professor  Budd  refers  to  four  forms  of  Amelan- 


*Trans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc.,  1880:130. 
tGardener's  Monthly,  1861:  229,  300  and  361. 
jTrans.  Iowa  Hort.  Soc..  1879  :440. 
glnsect  Life,  3:219. 


504  BUSH-FRUITS 

cliier  alnifolia,*  which  have  been  given  varietal  names  according 
to  the  source  from  which  they  have  come.  "Alpina"  is  the  name 
given  to  a  dwarf  form  received  from  the  mountains  of  Colorado ; 
"  Gardener "  and  "  Williams "  were  named  for  the  parties  from 
whom  they  were  received,  and  the  name  "Greene"  was  applied  to 
a  variety  received  from  Greene  county.  He  reports  all  of  these 
more  satisfactory  in  Iowa  than  either  the  eastern  United  States  or 
European  species. 

The  genus  Amelanchier,  to  which  the  Juneberries  belong,  is 
closely  related  to  the  genus  Pyrus,  which  includes  the  apple  and 
pear.  The  species  are  not  numerous,  and  all  are  closely  related. 
The  following  are  of  most  interest  from  a  horticultural  stand- 
point : 

AMELANCHIER  CANADENSIS  (Linn.),  Medic.    Shad-Bush  Juneberry. 

This  is  the  best  known  form  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 
It  often  reaches  a  height  of  forty  feet,  with  a  tall  straight  trunk 
and  small  spreading  branches,  forming  a  narrow,  oblong,  round- 
topped  tree.  It  occurs  from  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  west  to 
Louisiana  and  eastern  Nebraska,  and  farther  northward  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Though  a  desirable  ornamental  tree,  its  large 
size  is  against  it  as  a  fruit -bearing  plant.  Many  of  the  trees 
growing  wild  appear  to  be  sterile.  The  hills  are  dotted  with  their 
white  bloom  in  early  springtime,  but  comparatively  few  fruiting 
trees  are  found  in  summer. 

A.  BOTRYAPIUM  (L.  f.),  D.  C.     Dwarf  Juneberry.     A.  Canadensis 
var.  oblongifolia,  Torr.  &  Gray. 

This  is  a  low  plant,  from  two  to  five  feet  high,  bearing  smaller 
flowers  than  the  preceding  species.  It  is  found  from  Quebec  and 
New  Brunswick  to  Virginia,  and  west  to  Missouri  and  Minnesota, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  promising  forms  for  cultivation.  The 
variety  known  as  Success  belongs  here. 

A.  OLIGOCARPA  (Michx.),  Roem.     Northern  Dwarf  Juneberry. 

This  is  another  dwarf  form,  two  to  four  feet  high,  found  in 
cold  swamps  and  mountain  bogs  from  New  York  and  Northern 
New  England  northward  to  Labrador  and  Newfoundland.  It  is 
highly  recommended  as  an  ornamental  plant  and  the  fruit  is  said 
to  be  large,  dark  blue-purple,  with  a  heavy  bloom,  often  nearly 

*Popular  Gardening,  6:2. 


BOTANY  OF    THE  JUNEBERRIES 


505 


Fig.  112.    Amelanchier  .alnifolia. 

twice    as   long  as  broad,  sweet,  with  a  more  decided  flavor  than 
that  of  the  other  Juneberries. 

A.  ALNIFOLIA,    Nutt.      Western    Service    Berry   or    Shad    Bush. 

(Fig.  112.) 

This  is  a   low  shrub,  usually    only    a   few   feet   high,   though 
rarely  becoming  a  slender  tree.     The  leaves  are  broad,   oval  or 


506  BUSH-FRUITS 

nearly  circular  in  outline,  and  the  fruit  ripens  from  June  to  Sep- 
tember, according  to  location.  It  is  dark  blue,  or  sometimes 
nearly  black,  covered  with  a  glaucous  bloom,  very  sweet  and 
juicy,  and  is  said  to  reach  from  half  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  species  is  widely  distributed  over  the  western  half 
of  the  continent,  extending  eastward  as  far  as  the  western  shores 
of  Lake  Superior  and  the  northern  peninsula  of  Michigan.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  promising  species  as  a  fruit -producing  plant.  Its 
great  productiveness  and  the  large  size  and  good  quality  of  its 
fruit  are  likely  to  place  it  in  the  lead  for  the  western  half  of  the 
country,  at  least. 


THE    TREE    CRANBERRY      (Fig.  113) 

The  so-called  tree  cranberry  or  cranberry-tree  is  not  a  cran- 
berry in  any  sense  of  the  word.  It  has  received  this  name  owing 
to  a  superficial  resemblance  of  its  fruit  to  that  of  the  cranberry. 
Though  round  and  red  like  the  cranberry,  in  structure  and  flavor 
it  is  entirely  different.  The  plant  belongs  to  the  Honeysuckle 
family,  the  species  being  Viburnum  opulus,  Linn.  It  is  a  tall  and 
nearly  smooth  shrub,  with  gray  bark,  scaly  buds  and  large,  three 
to  five-lobed  leaves,  the  lobes  pointed  and  commonly  few -toothed. 
The  flowers  are  white,  borne  in  broad,  flat  clusters,  and  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  bright -colored  fruit  which  is  carried  on  the  tips  of 
the  branches,  well  above  the  leaves.  The  species  is  much  better 
known  in  the  modified  form  in  which  it  commonly  appears  in 
cultivation,  which  is  the  guelder  rose  or  snowball  tree  so  fre- 
quently planted  upon  lawns.  In  that  form  it  has  become  entirely 
sterile,  by  the  culture  adopted  to  bring  out  the  spherical  head  of 
bloom.  In  the  wild  type  only  the  marginal  florets  are  neutral. 

The  species  is  found  wild  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia 
and  North  America,  and  is  in  many  respects  a  more  desirable 
ornamental  plant  than  its  modified  descendant.  Although  pleas- 
ing in  habit  and  foliage,  it  is  especially  attractive  in  fruit.  About 
the  last  of  July  the  berries  take  on  a  greenish  yellow  or  orange 
hue,  tinged  with  bright  red  on  the  side  toward  the  sun.  From 
that  time  until  spring,  unless  taken  by  the  birds,  which  com- 
monly do  not  molest  it  when  other  food  is  abundant,  the  fruit  is 
always  attractive.  When  ripe  in  autumn  it  becomes  a  brilliant 


THE   TREE   CRANBERRY 


507 


Fig.  113.    Tree  Cranberry,  Viburnum  opulus. 

deep  scarlet  and  remains  so  until  severe  frosts,  which  cause  it  to 
become  somewhat  duller,  though  it  will  remain  conspicuously 
bright  all  winter  if  allowed  to  hang.  This  renders  the  plant 
attractive  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  Its  flowers, 
too,  are  as  graceful  as  those  of  the  sterile  form. 

The  plant  deserves  all  the  praise  it  is  likely  to  receive  as  an 
ornamental,  but  as  a  fruit-producing  plant  it  is  of  doubtful  value. 
The  fruit  is  said  to  be  very  sour,  but  more  agreeable  than  the  true 
cranberry.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  as  a  substitute  for  it,  and 
makes  good  sauce  or  jelly,  though  too  astringent  to  suit  some 


508  BUSH-FRUITS 

palates.  A  very  serious  objection  appears  in  the  large  size  of  its 
seeds,  though  different  plants  vary  somewhat  in  this  respect. 
Were  it  not  for  this  defect  it  might  become  a  fruit-producing 
plant  of  considerable  importance.  Its  name,  tree  cranberry, 
is  a  standing  temptation  to  smooth-tongued  agents  to  recommend 
the  plant  as  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  the  cranberry,  suited  to 
upland  soils  and  regions  in  which  the  cranberry  does  not  succeed. 
In  such  cases  it  must  prove  a  disappointment,  though  deserving 
the  highest  praise  for  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  adapted.  The 
plant  is  perfectly  hardy,  so  far  as  cold  is  concerned,  and  can  be 
grown  in  almost  any  soil  or  location.  It  may  be  propagated  by 
layers,  by  hard-wood  cuttings,  or  by  seeds,  though  the  latter 
require  two  years  for  germination. 

{THE     BARBERRY 

Unlike  many  of  the  fruits  which  we  have  been  considering,  the 
barberry  has  once  been  popular  and  has  since  declined  in  favor. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  appropriate  to  substitute  for  a  modern 
description  of  the  plant  that  given  by  Gerarde  in  1597.  He  says: 
"  The  barberry  plant  is  an  high  shrub  or  bush,  having  many  young 
straight  shoots  and  branches  very  full  of  white  prickly  thorns,  the 
rind  whereof  is  smooth  and  thin,  the  wood  itself  yellow:  the 
leaves  are  long,  very  greene,  sleightly  nicked  about  the  edges, 
and  of  a  soure  taste:  the  flours  be  yellow,  standing  in  clusters 
upon  long  stems:  in  their  places  come  up  long  berries,  slender, 
red  when  they  be  ripe,  with  a  little  hard  kernell  or  stone  within, 
of  a  soure  and  sharp  taste :  the  root  is  yellow,  disperseth  it  self 
far  abroad,  and  is  of  a  wooddy  substance.  Wee  have  in  our  London 
gardens  another  sort,  whose  fruit  is  like  in  forme  and  substance, 
but  one  berry  is  as  big  as  three  of  the  common  kinde,  wherein 
consisteth  the  difference.  We  have  likewise  another  without  any 
stone,  the  fruit  is  like  the  rest  of  the  Barberries  both  in  substance 
and  taste." 

In  regard  to  its  distribution,  Gerarde  says:  "The  barberry 
bush  grows  of  it  selfe  in  untoiled  places  and  desart  grounds,  in 
woods  and  the  borders  of  fields,  especially  about  a  gentlemans 


THE  BARBERRY  509 

house  called  Mr.  Monke,  at  a  village  called  Iver  two  miles  from 
Colebrooke,  where  most  of  the  hedges  are  nothing  else  but  Bar- 
berry bushes.  They  are  planted  in  most  of  our  English  gardens." 

Among  "  The  Vertues "  ascribed  to  the  plant,  the  following  are 
of  special  interest.  "  The  leaves  are  used  of  divers  to  season  meat 
with,  and  instead  of  a  sallad,  as  be  those  of  Sorrell."  After 
enumerating  various  medicinal  "  vertues  "  he  adds :  "  A  conserve 
made  of  the  fruit  and  sugar  performeth  all  those  things  before 
remembered,  &  with  better  force  and  successe." 

Philips,  writing  in  1822,*  quotes  from  another  author  as  fol- 
lows: "Barberries  are  of  an  agreeable,  cooling,  astringent  taste, 
which  creates  appetite."  He  further  says:  "Pickled  barberries 
make  a  handsome  garnish  for  all  white  dishes,  where  acids  can  be 
introduced:  this  fruit  is  also  used  for  making  syrup,  lozenges,  &c. 
We  have  now  several  varieties  of  barberry -shrub  cultivated  in 
England,  one  of  which  was  brought  from  Candia  in  1759,  and 
another  from  Siberia  in  1790,  but  it  possesses  no  advantage  over 
our  native  kin4  of  this  fruit." 

This  common  barberry  of  Europe,  Berberis  vulgaris,  has 
become  naturalized  in  New  England,  and  is  more  or  less  widely 
planted  elsewhere.  Downing  gives  it  a  brief  noticef  and  Fullert 
enters  into  a  somewhat  extended  discussion  of  it,  mentioning  a 
number  of  species  and  varieties. 

It  is  chiefly  planted  for  ornament,  rather  than  fruit,  and  for 
this  purpose  another  species,  B.  Thunbergii,  or  purple-leaved 
barberry,  which  has  inferior  fruit,  is  generally  preferred. 

Downing  says  that  "The  barberry  is  too  acid  to  eat,  but  it 
makes  an  agreeable  preserve  and  jelly,  and  an  ornamental  pickle 
for  garnishing  some  dishes."  It  comes  into  use  later  than  the 
currant  and  probably  fills  about  the  same  place  that  the  buffalo 
berry  might,  were  that  more  generally  cultivated.  Dr.  Hoskins,  of 
Vermont,  who  has  both  growing,  reports  it  far  more  productive 
than  the  buffalo  berry.  He  writes  that  although  his  plants  were 
set  on  the  lawn  for  ornament,  a  good  market  has  been  found  for 

*  Pomarium  Britanicum,  p.  62. 

t  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  Amer.,  p.  442. 

J  Small-Fruit  Culturist,  p.  20. 


510  BUSH-FRUITS 

the  fruit,  and  he  thinks  it  would  pay  to  plant  them  on  a  larger 
scale. 

Plants  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  or 
stratified  in  the  fall,  or  by  separating  the  suckers  which  spring  up 
about  the  main  stem.  They  may  also  be  grown  from  cuttings  of 
one  or  two-year-old  wood,  taken  in  the  fall,  or  treated  like 
currant  and  gooseberry  cuttings,  though  they  do  not  root  so 
readily  as  these  plants. 

The  merits  of  the  barberry  as  an  ornamental  plant  need  not 
be  further  discussed,  but  as  a  fruit -producing  plant  it  may 
teach  a  lesson.  We  talk  much  of  the  improvement  of  wild 
fruits,  and  are  almost  led  to  believe  that  we  can  take  anything 
that  is  edible,  no  matter  how  small,  hard,  sour,  puckery  or 
thorny  it  may  be,  and  by  careful  selection  and  hybridizing,  pro- 
duce from  it  a  fruit  which  shall  delight  the  taste  and  swell  the 
purse  of  coming  generations.  Does  not  the  history  of  this  fruit 
suggest  that,  after  all,  there  may  be  some  things  which  are  not 
worth  trying  to  improve? 

THE    SAND    CHEERY 

I  cannot  bring  myself  to  close  this  discussion  of  miscellane- 
ous bush  fruits  without  a  brief  mention  of  the  western  sand 
cherry,  although  its  relationships  might  more  naturally  classify  it 
among  the  stone  fruits.  This  plant  is  known  botanically  as  Prunus 
Besseyi,  Bailey.*  It  is  a  graceful,  somewhat  spreading  shrub, 
3  to  4  feet  high,  with  slender,  ascending  or  slightly  drooping 
branches.  At  flowering  time  the  leaves  are  small,  narrowly 
oblanceolate,  and  slightly  whitened  beneath,  but  at  maturity  they 
become  oval  or  elliptic,  very  bright  and  shining  on  both  sides. 
The  flowers  are  borne  in  axillary  clusters  all  along  the  younger 
branches,  so  that  at  blossoming  time  these  are  one  mass  of 
bloom.  The  fruit  ranges  from  three -eighths  to  five -eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  usually  very  dark  purple  or  blackish 
in  color.  In  flavor  it  resembles  the  improved  forms  of  the  east- 

*For  a  fuller  account  of  the  species,  see  Cornell  University  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin,  38  :  58-65,  and  70  :  260-262. 


THE   SAND    CHERRY  511 

era  choke  cherry,  Prunus  Virginiana,  occasionally  found  in  cul- 
tivation, but  is  larger. 

The  species  is  found  wild  from  Manitoba  to  Kansas  and 
westward  to  the  mountains  of  Colorado  and  Utah.  Its  value  as 
a  fruit-plant  has  been  urged  from  time  to  time,  and  it  was  in- 
troduced from  Colorado  as  the  improved  dwarf  Rocky  Mountain 
cherry.  Plants  received  under  this  name  have  been  growing 
in  the  grounds  of  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  for  several 
years,  and  although  white  with  blossoms  in  springtime,  none 
of  the  fruit  matured  until  wild  plants  were  set  in  the  same  gar- 
den, probably  owing  to  a  lack  of  proper  fecundation. 

Similar  lack  of  fruitfulness  sometimes  occurs  when  wild  plants 
are  removed  to  the  garden,  though  as  a  rule  they  are  immensely 
productive.  Wild  plants  set  in  the  spring  of  1895  were  loaded 
with  fruit  in  1897.  The  size  varies  much  on  different  plants, 
showing  abundant  opportunity  for  selection.  It  ripens  after  other 
cherries,  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  July,  in  Nebraska.  The 
largest  fruits  are  about  equal  in  size  to  the  Early  Richmond  and 
English  Morello,  as  grown  here.  Although*  somewhat  astringent, 
it  is  rather  pleasant  to  eat  out  of  hand,  and  rapidly  disappeared 
from  our  plants,  which  are  near  to  the  farm  buildings.  It  should 
be  left  until  fully  ripe,  for  this  astringency  is  then  less  notice- 
able. Any  eastern  housewife  who  has  known  the  value  of  the 
better  forms  of  the  eastern  choke  cherry,  though  such  are  few, 
for  that  species  is  little  known  in  cultivation,  will  be  able  to 
appreciate  the  merits  of  the  sand  cherry  as  a  fruit.  Many  western 
housewives  know  it  already.  It  makes  excellent  sauce  and 
admirable  jelly,  and  is,  no  doubt,  equally  good  for  pies. 

Those  familiar  with  the  cultivated  choke  cherry  find  that 
when  its  fruits  are  fully  ripe  their  astringency  may  be  almost 
wholly  removed  by  rolling  them  in  a  sack  or  shaking  them  in  a 
closed  dish.  When  so  treated  they  make  an  excellent  dish,  eaten 
raw  with  sugar  and  cream.  Perhaps  a  similar  treatment  might 
improve  the  sand  cherry. 

Whatever  value  the  sand  cherry  may  have  as  a  fruit-produc- 
ing plant  in  the  future  pomology  of  the  country,  its  position  as 
an  ornamental  shrub  is  assured,  and  it  is  chiefly  to  this  use  that  I 


512  B  USH-FR  UITS 

wish  to  call  attention  in  the  present  notice.  I  know  of  no  shrub 
more  useful  for  ornamental  planting  on  the  Plains  than  this.  It 
is  perfectly  hardy  and  adapted  to  the  region,  and  is  a  rapid  and 
vigorous  grower. 

As  a  low -growing  shrub,  or  as  a  foreground  for  larger  groups, 
it  can  hardly  be  surpassed.  In  the  plantings  on  the  campus  of 
the  University  of  Nebraska,  it  has  been  used  more  extensively 
than  anything  else. 

None  of  the  broad-leaved  evergreens,  such  as  rhododendrons, 
mahonias  and  kalmias,  succeed  in  the  dry  and  trying  climate  of 
the  Plains,  but  this  plant  is  a  very  satisfactory  substitute  during 
more  than  half  the  year.  It  is  one  of  the  first  to  awaken  in  spring 
and  one  of  the  last  to  hold  its  leaves  in  the  fall,  being  unharmed 
by  the  first  frosts,  which  ruin  the  effect  of  many  ornamental 
shrubs.  Its  bright,  clean,  glossy  foliage  closely  approaches  that 
of  the  broad-leaved  evergreens  in  effect.  It  has  also  the  very 
desirable  quality  of  presenting  beautiful  autumn  tints,  as  a  part- 
ing picture  to  be  held  in  remembrance  during  the  dreary  days  of 
winter,  a  quality  all  too  rare  among  the  plants  of  the  Plains,  but 
one  which  is  fully  appreciated  by  all  who  recall  the  naming  hill- 
sides of  an  eastern  October  day. 


APPENDIX 

AMERICAN   BOOKS    ON   BUSH-FRUITS 

There  ai-e  no  American  books  devoted  to  bush-fruits  alone, 
except  the  present  volume.  There  are  a  few  books  on  small  - 
fruits  in  general,  however,  and  these  are  recorded  below. 
Books  devoted  wholly  to  the  strawberry  or  the  cranberry  are 
omitted.  The  general  fruit  manuals  contain  chapters  on  the 
various  bush-fruits,  and  a  list  of  these  books  may  be  found 
in  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing."  Much  historical  information 
will  be  found  in  "Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits."  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  books  in  the  editor's  library  which  give  spe- 
cial attention  to  bush  -fruits: 

ABBOTT,  FRANCIS  B. 

HAND-BOOK  OF  SMALL  FRUITS.  Illustrated.  Chicago,  n.  d.  [n.  c.] 
Pub.  by  the  author,  in  the  eighties,  pp.  36.  5%x3%.* 

BIGGLE,  JACOB. 

BIGGLE  BERRY  BOOK;  a  condensed  treatise  on  the  culture  of  berries. 
With  leaves  from  the  experience  of  many  practical  berry-growers  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States.  Illustrated.  Philadelphia,  1894. 
[c.  1894.]  Wilmer  Atkinson  Co.  pp.  126. 

FULLER,  ANDREW  S. 

THE  SMALL-FRUIT  CULTURIST.  Beautifully  illustrated.  New  York. 
n.  d.  [c.  1867.]  Orange  Judd  Co.  pp.  iv-j-276.  7%x5.— 
[Translated  into  Germen  by  Heinrich  Maurer  as  A.  S.  Fuller's 
Kultur  der  Fruchtstraucher,  als  der  Erdbeeren,  Hirnbeeren,  Brom- 
beeren,  Johannisbeeren,  Stachelbeeren,  Kornelkirschen,  Preiszel- 
beeren,  Heidelbeeren,  Berberitzen,  Zwergkirschen,  etc.,  etc. 
Nebst  einer  Anleitung  zum  Eidsammeln,  zur  verpackung  und 
versendung  der  Friichte.  Mit.  27  Tafeln,  enthaltend  103  Abbil- 
dungen.  Weimar.  1868.  [n.  c.]  Voigt.  pp.  ix-f  142  -f  27  plates. 


—  Same,  new,  rewritten,  and  enlarged  edition.     1881.     fc.  1881.1    pp. 

287.     7^x5. 
-Same,  third  ed.     1897.     [c.  1887.]    pp.298. 


*Size  of  book,  in  inches. 

(513) 

GG 


514  APPENDIX 

GALUSHA,  O.  B. 

Luscious  FRUITS;  How  to  grow  Strawberries,  Raspberries,  Black- 
berries, Grapes,  Currants  and  Gooseberries  in  abundance  and 
economically,  on  a  small  scale.  Farm  Library,  Vol.  I,  No.  5.  Mar. 
1,  1882.  Chicago.  [c.  1882.]  Pub.  by  E.  H.  Libby.  pp.  24. 
7K  x  4%. 

GREEN,  CHARLES  A.,  ED. 

GREEN'S  FRUIT-GROWER;  special  issue  of,  devoted  to  Strawberry 
culture,  Grape  culture,  Apple  and  Pear  culture,  Plum  and  Cherry 
culture,  Raspberry  and  Blackberry  culture.  Illustrated.  Rochester, 
July  and  October,  1886;  April,  July  and  October,  1887.  [c.  1888.] 
pp.  81.  9%  x  6.  [Five  issues  under  one  cover.] 

GREEN,  C.  A. 

GREEN'S  Six  BOOKS,  devoted  to  Apple  culture,  Pear  culture,  Plum 
and  Cherry  culture,  Raspberry  and  Blackberry  culture,  Grape  cul- 
ture, Strawberry,  Currant,  Gooseberry  and  Persimmon  culture. 
Illustrated.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1896.  fc.  1894.]  Green's  Nursery 
Co.,  N.  Y.  pp.  142.  9x6.  [New  edition  of  1896.] 

HILLS,  WILLIAM  H. 

SMALL  FRUITS;  their  propagation  and  cultivation,  including  the 
Grape.  Containing  practical  directions  for  the  selection  of  soil  and 
its  preparation;  the  use  of  manures  and  fertilizers;  crossing, 
hybridizing,  and  growing  new  varieties  from  seed;  transplanting, 
pruning,  and  training;  gathering,  packing  and  marketiug  fruit; 
descriptions  of  varieties,  their  origin,  diseases,  and  insect  enemies. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  Boston.  1886.  [c.  1886.] 
Cupples,  Upham  &  Co.  pp.  138.  9x6. 

PARDEE,  R.  G. 

A  COMPLETE  MANUAL  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY; 
with  a  description  of  the  best  varieties.  Also,  notices  of  the 
Raspberry,  Blackberry,  Cranberry,  Currant,  Gooseberry,  and 
Grape.  With  directions  for  their  cultivation,  and  the  selection  of 
the  best  varieties.  With  a  valuable  appendix,  containing  the  obser 
vations  and  experience  of  some  of  the  most  successful  cultivators 
of  these  fruits  in  our  country.  New  York.  1854.  [c.  1854.]  C.  M. 
Saxton.  pp.  viii-fl44.  1%  x  5.  B. 

—  Same.    Third  revised  edition.    Illustrated.    New  York.     1856.     [c. 
1856.]     C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co.     pp.  vi+157.     7%  x5. 

-Same.  Sixth  edition.  New  York.  1858.  [c.  1856.]  A.O.Moore. 
pp.  xii-fl57.  IV*  x  5. 

—  Same.    New  and  revised   edition.      New  York.      n.  d.      [c.  1856.] 
Orange  Judd  &  Co.    pp.  xii-f-157.     1%  x  5.     [Contains  a  "preface  to 
the  tenth  edition,"  dated  January,  1865.] 

PARRY,  WILLIAM. 

FIFTY  YEARS  AMONG  SMALL  FRUITS.  Telling  what  and  how  to  plant. 
Illustrated.  Parry  N.  J.  n.  d.  [1885.]  Pub.  by  the  author 
pp.64.  9x6. 


APPENDIX  515 

FITRDY,  A.  M. 

SMALL-FRUIT     INSTRUCTOR.      New    edition.      Illustrated.      Palmyra, 
N.  Y.     1887.     [c.  1887].     Pub.  by  the  author,     pp.  128.    9x5%. 

ROE,  EDWARD  P. 

SUCCESS     WITH     SMALL    FRUITS.      Illustrated.      New    York.      1880. 

[c.  1880.]     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.     pp.  313.    9%  x  7%.     [The  Illustrated 

quarto  edition.] 
-Same.      1886.      [c.  1881. J      pp.  xvi-f-319.     9x6%.      [The  illustrated 

quarto  edition,  with  narrower  margins.    Has  a  "preface  to  the  new 

edition,"  dated  1886.] 
-Same.      n.   d.      [c.    1881.]       pp.388.      7%x534.      [New    edition; 

preface  dated  1886.] 


INDEX 


Abraxas  ribearia,  419. 
Accounts  with  pickers,  30. 
Acronycta  Americana,  279. 

—  brumosa,  279. 

—  oblinita,  279. 

—  spinigera,  279. 

—  xyliniformis,  279. 

—  xylinoides,  279. 
^cidium  nitens,  285. 

—  grossularise,  438. 
Algeria  caudata,  429. 

—  hemizoniw,  278. 

—  rubi,  258. 

—  tipuliformis,  418. 
Agrilus  ruficolis,  262. 
Agrostis  clandestina,  430. 

—  fennica,  279. 
Air-blast  driers,  96. 
Alcathoe  caudatum,  429. 
Aleyrodes  sp.,  276. 
Alphitomorpha      penicillata      grossu- 

lariffi,  439. 

Amblycorypha  oblongifolia,  427. 
Amelanchier,  species  of,  504. 
American  black  currant,  390,  481. 

—  books  on  bush-fruits,  513. 

—  current  borer,  422. 

—  gooseberries,  399. 

—  red  raspberries,  184. 

recommended  varieties,  199. 

varieties  of,  192. 

raspberry,  317. 

Amphipyra  pyramidoides,  279. 
Amphydasis  cognataria,  430. 
Anatis  15-punctata,  281. 
Anchyloptera  fragarise,  277. 
Angerona  crocataria,  429. 
Anisota  senataria,  280. 
Anomala  binotata,  281. 


Anthonomous  helvolus,  432. 

—  musculus,  270. 

—  rubidus,  432. 

—  signatus,  270. 
Anthracnose,  gooseberry,  435. 

—  raspberry,  286. 
Apatela  Americana,  279. 

—  brumosa,  279. 

—  oblinita,  279. 

—  spinigera,  279. 

—  xyliniformis,  279. 
Apatelodes  torrefacta,  278. 
Aphis  ribis,  416. 

—  rubicola  276 

Aphrophora  quadrangularis,  276. 
Aplodes  rubivora,  260. 
Ascochyta  rubi,  299. 
Aspidiotus  ancylus,  428. 

—  cerasi,  277,  429. 

—  circularis,  429. 

-  furfurus,  277,  429. 

—  nerii,  429. 

—  perniciosus,  417 

—  pomorum,  276. 
Aspilates  atropunctaria,  278. 

—  coloraria,  278. 
Asterella  Pearsoni,  297. 
Asterina  Pearsoni,  297. 

—  rubicola,  297. 
Asteroma  ribicolum,  441. 
Author's  experience  in  planting,  9. 
Attacus  cecropia,  280,  431. 
Aulacaspis  rosas,  276. 
Automatic  evaporator,  93. 
Autoineris  io,  280,  431. 

Autumn  fruiting  of  red  raspberries,  52. 


Bacterial  disease,  292. 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  quoted,  22, 


(517) 


518 


INDEX 


Baked-apple  berry*  308. 
Barberry,  508. 
Basilarchia  astyanax,  431. 
Baskets,  making,  35. 
Bassareus  mammifer,  281. 
Bernbecia  marginata,  258. 
Berberis  Thunbergii,  509. 

—  vulgaris,  509. 
Berry-baskets,  making,  35. 
Berry-crate,  directions  for  making,  32. 
Berry-harvester,  74. 

Biston  cognataria,  430. 
Blackberries,  106.  219. 

—  botanical  affinities,  219. 

—  distinguished  from  dewberries,  241. 

—  drying,  120. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  123. 
-  fertilizers  for,  107. 

—  forcing,  28. 

—  hardiness  of,  125. 

—  harvesting  and  marketing,  119. 

—  laying  down  in  Hudson  river  valley, 

—  leafy-cluster,  235.  [23. 

—  long-cluster,  226,  238. 

—  medicinal  qualities  of,  121. 

—  planting,  112. 

—  profits  of,  127. 

—  propagating,  108. 

—  pruning,  117. 

—  recommended  varieties,  240. 

—  short-cluster,  232. 

—  soU  for,  106. 

—  tillage  and  mulching,  115. 

—  types  of,  225. 

—  uses  of,  120. 

Blackberries,      varieties      of  — Adair  i 
Claret,  237;   Agawam,   233,  240;   Al-   | 
bion,  237;    Alger,    237;    Allen,  227;    I 
Americus,  236:   Ancient  Briton,  227,   j 
240;     Bangor,    227;      Banton,     227; 
Barnard,    227;      Black    Chief,     2C3; 
Bonanza,  227;    Boston    High    Bush, 
2S6;     Brandenburg,    228;     Brunton 
Early,  236;    Cape  May,  228;    Carlo, 
228 ;     Cherry   Valley,  228  ;     Child's 
Tree   Blackberry,   240 ;    Clark,  228; 


Colonel  Wilder,  237;  Crandall,  232; 
Crystal  White,  237;  Cumberland, 
228;  Cut-leaved,"  154;  Cutter  Mul- 
berry, 228;  Dallas,  228,  241;  Dehring, 
228;  Doctor  Warder,  237;  Dodge 
Thornless,  228;  Dorchester,  224,236; 
Duncan  Falls,  228;  Early  Cluster, 
225,  228,  240;  Early  Harvest,  236: 
240;  Early  King,  236;  Eldorado,  229; 
Erie,  233;  Eureka,  238;  Excelsior, 
229;  Farley,  229;  Felton,  229;  Ford 
No.  1,  233;  Freed,  220;  Fruitland. 
233;  Gainor,  229;  Grape,  229;  Haley, 
229;  Hoag,  229,  Holcomb,  229;  Hoo- 
sac  Thornless,  230 ;  Idaho  Climbing, 
230 ;  Improved  High  Bush,  236  ; 
Jordan,  230;  Kentucky  White,  237; 
King,  236  ;  Kittatinny,  233  ;  Knox, 
230  ;  Lawton,  234  ;  Lincoln,  230; 
Lovett,234;  Luther,  230;  Mammoth, 
238;  Mason  Mountain,  230;  Maxwell, 
230;  Maynard,  239  ;  Mersereau,  234; 
McCracken,  230;  Minnewaski,  234, 
241;  Missouri  Mammoth,  230;  Moun- 
tain Rose,  230;  Needham  White,  238; 
Nevada,  231;  Newman  Thornless, 
239;  New  Rochelle,  234;  Ohmer,  231; 
Orange's  Crystal,  237;  Ozark,  231; 
Parish  Pink,  238;  Parnell,  231; 
Parker  Early,  231  ;  Piazza,  231 ; 
Rathbun,  239;  Red  Hybrid,  231; 
Reyner,  231;  Role  Early.  231;  Sable 
Queen,  231;  Sadie,  231;  Sanford,234; 
Seacor's  Mammoth,  234;  See  Early, 
236,  Sinclair,  231;  Snyder,  234,  240; 
Stayman  Early,  231;  Stone  Hardy, 
234;  Sterling  Thornless,  239;  Suc- 
cess, 234;  Taylor,  25,  231,  240; 
Tecumseh,  231;  Texas  Early,  232; 
Texas  Hybrid,  238;  Texas  Pink 
Hybrid,  238  ;  Thompson's  Early 
Mammoth,  238;  Topsy,  240;  Truman 
Thornless,  232;  Uncle  Tom,  233; 
Wachusett,  232;  Wallace,  232;  Wap- 
sie,  232;  Warren,  232;  Washington, 
232;  Western  Triumph, 235 ;  Weston, 


INDEX 


519 


Blackberries,  varieties  of— 

232;  Wilson,  239,  241;  Wilson  Junior, 

239;  Woodland,  235. 
Blackberries,  white,  237. 
Blackberry,  324. 

—  cut-leaved,  154. 

—  dewberry  hybrids,  135,  324. 

—  future  of,  221. 

—  history  of,  221. 

—  legend,  223. 

—  mountain,  219. 

—  plants,  killing.  124. 

—  raspberry  hybrid,  326. 

—  sand,  240. 

—  wine,  122. 
Black  caps,  61. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  99. 

—  fertilizers  for,  63. 

—  hardiness  of,  100. 

—  harvesting,  74. 

—  location  for,  62. 

—  marketing,  82. 

—  planting,  67. 

—  profits,  103. 

—  propagation  of,  65. 

—  pruning,  70. 

—  soil  for,  61. 

—  tillage  for,  69. 

—  uprooting  plantations,  99. 

—  yield  in  dried  fruit,  102. 

—  yields  of,  101. 
Black  currants,  355,  375. 

Blac.k  Currant,  American,  390,  481. 
European,  388,  473. 

—  huckleberry,  498. 

—  raspberries,  61,  158. 

history  of,  158. 

pollination,  114. 

recommended  varieties,  176. 

varieties,  160. 

—  raspberry,  319. 
Blennocampa  paupera,  282. 
Blueberry,  498,  499. 
Bombyx  ehrysorrhoea,  280. 

—  mori,  280. 

Books  on  bush-fruits,  513. 


Botanical   relationship  of   the   black- 
berry. 219. 
Botauy  of  the  brambles,  303. 

groselles,  443. 

huckleberries,  497. 

Botryospheeria  fuliginosa,  297. 
Botrytis  patula.  300. 
Bramble  crown-borer,  258. 

—  diseases,  284. 

—  flea-louse,  254. 

—  insects,  251. 
Brambles,  43. 

—  botany  of,  303. 

—  crossing,  38. 

—  double  white  and  pink,  155. 

—  miscellaneous,  146. 

—  ornamental,  150. 
Breeding  currants,  377. 
BrincklS,  William  D.,  191. 
Brown  rot,  292. 

Bryobia  pratensis,  275,  427. 
Bud  moth,  256. 
Buffalo  berry,  485. 

—  currant,  390,  482. 
Building  for  evaporating,  97. 
Bush,  W.  H.,  evaporator  of,  87. 
By  turns  unicolor.  261. 

Cacoecia  argyrospila,  429. 

—  rosaceana,  277,  429. 

—  rosana,  277,  429. 
Caelodasis  biguttatus,  278. 

—  unicornis,  278. 
Cseoma  interstitiale,  285. 

—  luminatum,  285. 

—  ribis-alpini,  442. 
Callimorpha  Lecontei,  280. 
Caloptenus  femur-rubrum,  427. 

—  spretus,  275. 
Canadian  blueberry,  499. 
Cane-knot,  295. 

Canes,  cutting  out,  73. 

—  number  to  the  hill,  72. 
Capnodium  elongatum,  297. 

—  salicinum,  439. 
Capsus  obliueatus,  253. 


520 


INDEX 


Care  of  plants  when  received,  10. 
Carpophilus  brachypterus,  281. 
Carriers,  35. 
Caterva  catenaria,  278. 
Caywood,  A.  J.,  quoted,  142. 
Cecidomyia  farinosa,  281. 
•—  grossularise,  420. 
Cecidomya>p. ,  281. 
Cephas  integrer,  426. 
Ceramica  pieta,  279,  430. 
Ceratina  dupla,  283. 
Cercospora  angulata,  438. 

—  ribicola,  441. 

—  rosicola,  300. 

—  rubi,  300. 

Chelymorpha  argus,  281. 
Chinese  raspberry,  150,  310. 
Chionaspis  furfurus,  277,  429. 
Chittenden,  F.  H.,  quoted,  270. 
Chlamys  plicata,  281. 
Chrysomyxa  albida,  301. 
Cicada  septendecim,  276. 
Cimex  carnifex,  275. 
Cingilia  catenaria,  278. 
Cladosporium  cubisporum,  441. 

—  herbarum,  300. 
Clisiocampa  Californica,  280. 

—  sp.t  431. 
Cloud-berry,  308. 
Clover,  use  of,  14. 
Cluster-cup,  gooseberry,  438. 
Clypeosphreria  Hendersonia,  298,  299. 

—  Notarisii,  298. 
Coccinella  15-punctata,  281. 
Coccomyces  Rubi,  302. 
Coccus  innumerabilis,  428. 

Cold  not  the  cause  of  all  winter-kill- 
ing, 24. 
Coleosporium  rubi,  301. 

—  Vernonise,  301. 

Comstock    and    Slingerland,    quoted, 
268. 

—  Anna  Bot?*ord,  engravings  by,  252. 
Coniosporium  Fumago,  441. 
Corimeloena  puliearia,  276. 
Corticium  incarnatum,  442. 


Corticium  lacteum,  442. 
Coryneum  microstictum,  300. 
Cosmopepla  carnifex,  275,  428. 
Cost  of  evaporating  berries,  81. 

laying  down  plants,  21,  23 

Cotalpa  lanigera,  281. 
Crabro  sexmaculatus,  283. 
Cranberry,  Tree,  506. 
Crates,  32. 

Crepidodera  cucumeris,  282. 
Crossing,  remarks  on,  36. 
Crown  Gall,  294. 
Cryptocephalus  binomis,  281= 

—  quadruplex,  281. 

—  venustus,  282. 
Cucurbitaria  Ribis,  440. 
Cultivating  blackberries,  115. 

—  black-caps,  69. 

—  dewberries,  141. 

—  red  raspberries,  49. 
Cultivation,  12. 
Cultivators,  14. 

Currant  borer,  American,  422. 
imported,  418. 

—  botanical  description  of,  469. 

—  botany  of  444. 

—  cuttings,  341. 

—  extent  of  cultivation,  337. 

—  fly,  421. 

—  fruit-worm,  420 

—  history,  376. 

—  hybrids,  484. 

—  leaf-spot,  438. 

—  plant-louse,  416 

—  shrub,  351. 

—  span-worm,  419. 

—  stem-girdler,  426. 

—  tubercle,  436. 

—  worm,  imported,  422. 

native,  425. 

Currants,  337. 

—  acres  in  nurseries,  338. 

—  black,  355,  375. 

—  breeding,  377. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  352. 

—  fertilizers,  340. 


INDEX 


521 


Currants,  gathering  and  marketing,  349. 

—  hardiness,  353. 

—  ornamental,  413. 

—  planting,  344. 

—  profits,  354. 

—  propagation,  341. 

—  pruning,  347. 

—  recommended  varieties,  391. 

—  soil  and  location,  339. 

—  thinning,  349. 
-  tillage,  346. 

—  training,  348. 

—  uses  of,  351. 

—  variation  in,  375,  378. 

Currants,  varieties  of  — Attractor,  379; 
Baldwin,  388;  Bang  Up,  388;  Belle  de 
St.  Gilles,  385;  Bertin  No.  9,  385; 
Bertin  Seedling,  379;  Black  English, 
389;  Black  Grape,  388;  Black  Naples, 
388;  Boston  Lady,  379;  Bronze,  379; 
Brown-Fruited,  389;  Buist  Long- 
bunched,  379;  Caucasian,  385;  Cay- 
wood  Seedling,  379;  Champagne,  379; 
Champion,  379,  389;  Chenonceaux, 
385;  Cherry,  279,391;  Clarke's  Sweet, 
386;  Climbing,  380;  Crandall,  390; 
Common  Black,  389;  Dana  White, 
380;  Deseret,  390;  Dr.  Brete,  380; 
Dwarf  Black,  389;  Eclipse,  380;  Fay, 
380,  391;  Fertile,  385;  Fertile  d'An- 
gers,  385;  Fertile  d'Angleterre,  385; 
Fertile  de  Bertin,  385;  Fertile  de 
Palluau,  384,  385;  Gloire  des  Sablons, 
382,391;  Gloucester  Red,  382;  Golden, 
390;  Goliath,  336;  Gondoin  Red,  382; 
Green-Fruited,  389;  Grosellier  a  Fruit 
Couleur  de  Chair,  379  ;  Groseillier 
Rouge  a  Grosse  Fruit,  384;  Grosse 
Rouge  de  Boulogne,  385;  Hative  de 
Bertin,  383,  385;  Houghton  Castle, 
386;  Imperial  Blanc,  386;  Imperial 
Jaune,  382;  Imperial  White,  386 ;  Im- 
perial Yellow,  382;  Jelly,  390;  Knight 
Early  Red,  382  ;  Knight  Large  Red, 
382;  Knight  Sweet  Red,  382;  La 
Caucase,  385;  La  Fertile,  383;  La 


Hative,  383,  385;  Lakewood,  383; 
Large-Bunched  Red,  384;  La  Ver- 
saillaise,385;  Lee,  389;  London  Mar- 
ket, 383;  London  Red,  383,391;  Long- 
Bunched  Holland,  383;  Long-Bunched 
Red,  383,  384;  Macrocarpa,  385;  Mag- 
num Bonum,  383;  Marvin  Seedling, 
383;  May's  Victoria,  386;  Mills'  No. 
20,22,28  and  29,  383,384;  Morgan's 
Red,  384 ;  Morgan's  White,  386 ;  North 
Star,  384;  Ogden's  Black  Grape,  388; 
Palluau,  384;  Palmer  Sweet  Red,  384; 
Pheasant's  Eye,  379;  Pitmaston 
Sweet  Red,  384;  Pomona,  384;  Prince 
Albert,  384,  391;  Prince  of  Wales, 
389;  Queen  Victoria,  385;  Raby  Cas- 
tle, 386;  Red  Cross,  384;  Red  Dutch, 
377,  384,  391;  Red  Dutch  Long- 
Bunched,  383;  Red  Grape,  385,  386; 
Red  Provence,  382;  Reeves'  White, 
386;  Ruby,  385;  Russian  Green,  389; 
Saunders,  390;  Select,  385;  Short- 
Bunched  Red,  383, 385;  Silver  Striped, 
385;  Stewart,  385;  Storrs  &  Harrison 
Co.'s  No.  1,  385;  Striped  Fruited,  385; 
Transparent,  385;  Transparent  Blanc, 
385;  Transparent  White,  385;  Ver- 
saillaise,  385,  391:  Versailles,  385; 
Victoria,  386,  391;  Warner's  Red 
Grape,  386;  Warrior's  Grape,  386; 
White  Antwerp,  386;  White  Clinton, 
386;  White  Crystal,  386:  White 
Dutch,  386;  White  Grape.  386,  391; 
White  Holland,  386;  White  Imperial, 
382,  386,  387,  391;  White  Leghorn, 
386;  White  Pearl,  386,  387;  White 
Provence,  387;  White  Versaillaise, 
387;  Wilder,  387,  391;  Wilmot's  Red 
Grape,  386. 

Currants,  yield,  353. 

Cut-leaved  blackberry,  154,  334, 

Cuttings,  currant,  341. 

—  gooseberry,  380. 

Cylindrosporium  Rubi,  289. 

Cynipid  leaf  gall,  283. 

Cytospora  Rubi,  299. 


522 


INDEX 


Dakruma  convolutella,  418. 
Dangleberry,  497. 
Darluca  filum,  300. 
Dasyscypha  acutipila,  302. 

—  bieolor,  302. 

—  clandestina,  302. 

—  scabro-villosa,  302. 
Dawson,  Jackson,  quoted,  492. 
Deilephila  lineata,  430. 
Depth  of  planting,  11. 
Dewberries,  132,  241. 

—  distinguished  from  blackberries,  241. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  143. 

—  fertilizers  for,  138. 

—  hardiness  of,  144. 

—  harvesting  and  marketing,  143. 

—  history  and  future,  132. 

—  killing  plants,  144. 

—  location  for,  137. 

—  northern,  242,  244. 

—  planting,  139. 

—  pollination  of,  140. 

—  profits  of,  145. 

—  propagation  of,  138. 

—  pruning  and  training,  141. 

—  recommended  varieties,  250. 

—  soU  for,  135. 

—  southern,  243,  246. 

—  tillage  for,  141. 

—  western,  243,  247. 

—  yield  of,  145. 
Dewberry,  328. 

Dewberries,  varieties  of —Albino  White, 
246  :  Aughinbaugh,  247;  Austin's  Im- 
proved, 245;  Bartel,  132,  244;  Bauer, 
246;  Colossal,  244;  Cook's  Hardy, 
246;  Crystal  White,  246;  Fairfax, 
246;  Geer,  244;  General  Grant,  244; 
Humboldt,  247;  Latimer  Seedling, 
244  ;  Loganberry,  247;  Lucretia,  134, 
245,  250;  Lucretia's  Sister,  245;  Mam- 
moth, 245,  249;  Mammoth  White, 
246;  Manatee,  246;  Mayes,  245,  250; 
Never  Fail,  245;  Primus,  249;  San- 
ford,  246;  Skagit  Chief,  249;  Wash- 
ington Belle,  250;  White  Dewberry, 


246:    Wilson's  White,  246;   Windom, 

246. 

Dewes,  Gerard,  quoted,  188. 
Diabrotica  12-punctata,  282. 
Diaporthe  (Chorostate)  concrescens, 

—  (Tetrastaga)  gallophila,  297.       [440. 

—  (Chorostate)  obscura,  297. 

—  recondita,  440. 

—  (Tetrastaga)  rostellata,  298. 

—  (Chorostate)  strumella,  439. 

—  syngenesia,  297. 
Diaspis  Harrisii,  277. 

—  ostreaeformis,  429. 

—  ros80,  276. 
Diastictis  ribearia,  419. 
Diastrophus  Bassettii,  282. 

—  cuscutaeformis,  282. 

—  Kincaidii,  283. 

—  nebulosus,  283. 

—  radicum,  283. 

—  turgidis,  283. 
Diatrype  Frangulse,  297. 
Diatrypella  ribesia,  440. 
Didymosphseria  Manitobensis,  298. 
Diplodia  Dearnessii,  441. 

—  rubi,  299. 

—  ruborum,  299. 
Dipterous  larva,  281. 
Discosia  artocreas,  300. 
Diseases  of  the  brambles,  284. 

groselles,  433. 

Distances  apart,  9. 

Dodoen's  description  of  raspberry,  187. 
Dodoen,  quoted,  222. 
Doryphora  decemlineata,  431. 
Dothidea  ribesia,  440. 
Double-blossom,  291. 

—  pink  brambles,  155,  335. 

—  white  brambles,  155,  335. 
Drought,  influence  on  black-caps,  103. 
Drying  blackberries,  120. 

—  raspberrierries,  77. 
Dryocampa  senataria,  280. 
Duration  of   plantations,    blackberry, 

— black-cap,  99.  [123. 

currant,  352, 


INDEX 


523 


Duration  of  plantations,  dewberry,  143. 

gooseberry,  370. 

— red  raspberry,  55. 

Durella  compressa,  302. 
Dwarf  blueberry,  496,  498. 

—  raspberry, 314. 

Eccopsis  exoletum,  429. 

—  permundana,  277. 
Elseagnus  edulis,  490. 

—  longipes,  488. 

—  pungens,  490. 

—  umbellata,  490. 
Empoa  albopicta,  428. 
Empoasca  albopicta,  428. 
Empretia  stimulea,  277,  429. 
Endophlcea  anisometra,  298. 
Endropia  armataria,  430. 
English  gooseberries,  372,  403. 
varieties,  403. 

little  known,  410. 

Epicaerus  imbricatus,  432. 
Epitrix  cucumeris.  282. 
Epochra  Canadensis,  421. 
Erysiphe  humuli,  290. 
Erythroneura  obliqua,  428. 

—  tricincta,  276,  428. 
Euchistus  variolaris,  275. 
Eucrostis  chloroleucaria,  278. 
Eudemis  botrana,  277. 
Eufitchia  ribearia,  419. 
Eunemoria  gracilaria,  260. 
Eupithecia  implicata,  var.  interrupto 

fasciata,  278,  420. 

—  interrupto  fasciata,  278,  420. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhoea,  280,  431. 
European  Black  Currant,  388,  473. 

—  gooseberry,  463. 

—  raspberries,  199. 

recommended  varieties,  212. 

varieties  of,  199. 

—  raspberry,  314. 
Eustroma  prunata,  430. 
Eutrapela  transversata,  430. 
Eutypa  flavo-virescens,  439. 

—  subcutaneata,  439. 


Evaporated  raspberry  industry,  83. 
Evaporating  red  raspberries,  55. 

—  time  required,  98. 
Evaporator  buildings,  97. 
Evaporators,  drying  with,  79. 
Exartema  exoleta,  429. 

—  permundana,  277. 
Exposure,  4. 

Fall  planting,  7. 

—  plowing,  6. 

Farmer,  L.  J.,  mentioned,  66. 
Fenestella  vestira,  440. 
Fenusa  Rubi,  282. 
Fertilizers,  6. 

—  for  blackberries,  107. 

black-caps,  63. 

currants,  340. 

dewberries,  138. 

gooseberries,  359. 

red  raspberries,  45. 

Fetid  currant,  467. 
Fire  raspberry,  155. 
Flowering  currant,  413,  482. 
Fomes  ribis,  441. 
Forbes,  quoted,  253. 
Forcing-house,  drying  berries  in,  78. 

—  raspberries  and  blackberries,  28. 
Form  for  making  berry  crates,  34. 
Four-lined  leaf -bug,  415. 
Fuchsia-flowered  gooseberry,  446. 
Fusarium  (?)  Rubi,  291. 
Fusidium  Fumago,  441. 
Fusisporium  Rubi,  291. 

Future  of  the  blackberry,  221. 

dewberry,  133. 

gooseberry,  398. 

red  raspberry,  186. 

Galusha,  O.  B.,  quoted,  108. 

Garden  currant,  botanical  description, 

469. 
Gathering  blackberries,  119. 

—  currants,  349. 

—  gooseberries,  367. 

—  the  fruit,  29. 


524 


INDEX 


Gaylussacia,  497. 

—  frondosa,  497. 

—  resinosa,  498. 

Geographical  variation  in  Ribes,  444. 
Gerarde,  John,  picture  of    raspberry, 
Gerarde's  Herbal,  quoted,  396.         [189. 
Giant  root-borer,  267. 
Gibberella  Saubinetii,  298. 
Gloeosporium  necator,  286. 

—  ribicolum,  441. 

—  Ribis,  435. 
-  Rubi,  288. 

—  Venetum,  286. 
Glonium  macrosporum,  299. 
Gnomonia  melanostyla,  297. 
Gnomon  iella  melanostyla,  297. 
Godronia  urceolus,  442. 
Goff,  Professor,  quoted,  289. 
Golden  currant,  390,  482. 
Gooseberries,  357. 

—  acres  in  nurseries,  357. 

—  American,  399. 

—  botany  of,  444. 

—  duration  of  plantations,  370. 

—  English,  372. 

varieties  little  known,  410. 

—  extent  of  cultivation,  357. 

—  fertilizers  for,  359. 

—  gathering  and  marketing,  367. 

—  grafting,  363. 

—  hardiness  of,  371. 

—  history  and  future,  396. 

—  keeping,  369. 

—  ornamental,  413. 

—  planting,  363. 

—  profits,  372. 

—  propagation  of ,  359. 

—  pruning,  364. 

—  recommended  varieties,  412. 

—  regions  of  adaptation,  358. 

—  root-cuttings,  362. 

—  soil  and  location  for,  358. 

—  thinning,  366. 

—  tillage,  364. 

—  training,  366. 

—  uses  of,  368. 


Gooseberries,  varieties  of  —  American 
Cluster,  400;  American  Red,  400; 
American  Red  Jacket,  413 ;  American 
Seedling,  400;  Apex,  399;  Aston 
Seedling,  408 ;  Blucher,  404 ;  Cedar 
Hill,  402 ;  Champion,  309,  413 ;  Chau- 
tauqua,  404, 412 ;  Cluster,  400 ;  Colum- 
bus, 405,  412 ;  Crown  Bob,  405,  412  ; 
Crystal,  402;  Dominion,  406,  412; 
Downing,  399,  412;  Dutch  Joe,  400; 
Early  Sulphur,  408  ;  Engle's  Yellow, 
400  ;  Excellent,  406 ;  Excelsior,  400  ; 
Frontenac,  406;  Gracilla,  406;  Hale 
Golden,  402 ;  Hedgehog,  406 ;  Hobb's 
Seedling,  400;  Houghton,  398,  400, 
412;  Hudson,  400;  Huntsman,  406; 
Industry,  406,  412 ;  Jewett,  400 ;  Jolly 
Angler,  406;  Keepsake,  407;  Lady 
Popham,  407;  Lancashire  Lad,  407, 
412;  Leveller,  407;  Lord  Beacons- 
field,  407;  Matchless,  407;  Mountain, 
402  ;  Newell  Seedling,  403  ;  Ohio  Pro- 
lific, 400  ;  Ohio  Seedling,  400 ;  Orange, 
400 ;  Oregon  Jumbo,  403  ;  Pale  Red, 
400;  Pearl,  401,  413;  Portage,  407; 
Puyallup.  407;  Queen  of  the  Whites, 
407;  Red  Champagne,  407;  Red 
Jacket,  401,  408;  Red  Warrington, 
408;  Robert's  Sweetwater,  400; 
Smiling  Beauty,  408;  Smith,  401; 
Spineless,  408  ;  St.  Clair,  400 ;  Stein, 
403 ;  Stockwell,  408 ;  Strubler,  401 ; 
Succeed,  408;  Sulphur,  408;  Sunset, 
408;  Tally-ho,  408;  Thumper,  409; 
Tree,  401 ;  Triumph,  409,  412 ;  Vic- 
toria, 401 ;  Wellington  Glory,  409, 412 ; 
Whinham's  Industry,  406;  White 
Eagle,  409;  Whitesmith,  409,  412; 
Woodward's  Whitesmith,  409. 

Gooseberries,  yield,  371. 

Gooseberry,  ancient  names,  396. 

—  fruit- worm,  418. 

—  botanical  description,  461. 

—  cluster-cup,  438. 

—  midge,  420. 

-  mildew,  373,  433. 


INDEX 


525 


Gortyna  cataflhracta,  430. 

—  nitela,  279. 
Goumi,  488. 
Gouty-gall  beetle,  262. 
Grafting  gooseberries,  363. 
Graphiothecium  parasiticum,  441. 
Graphium  gracile,  301. 

—  pruinosipes,  301. 
Grapta  comma,  280,  431. 

—  faurnis,  431. 

—  progne,  431. 
Groselle  diseases,  433. 

—  fungi,  less  important,  439. 

—  insects,  415. 

less  important,  427. 

Groselles,  337. 

—  botany  of,  443. 

—  crossing,  38. 

Habrosyne  scripta,  279. 
Hadena  amputatrix,  430. 

—  arctica,  430. 

—  xylinoides,  279. 
Hale,  J.  H.,  quoted,  113. 
Hallett,  E.  A.,  Quoted,  13. 
Haltica  cucumeris,  282. 
Haploa  Lecontei,  280. 
Hardiness,  19. 

—  of  blackberries,  125. 

black-caps,  100. 

currants,  353. 

dewberries,  144. 

gooseberries,  371. 

red  raspberries,  57. 

Harpiphorus  varianus,  282. 
Harvester,  berry-,  74. 
Harvesting  blackberries,  119. 

—  black-caps,  74. 

—  dewberries,  143. 

—  red  raspberries,  53. 
Heat,  injury  by,  4. 
Heliothis  exprimens,  279. 
Help,  necessity  for,  2. 

—  retaining,  3. 
Hendersonia  platypus,  300. 
-  Rubi,  300. 


Hendersonia  sarmentorum,  300. 
Herstine,  David  W.,  191. 
High  blackberry,  324. 

—  huckleberry,  495,  469. 
Hispa  rosea,  431. 

History  of  the  blackberry,  221. 

black  raspberry,  158. 

currant,  376. 

dewberry,  132. 

gooseberry,  396. 

purple  cane  raspberry,  177. 

red  raspberry,  186. 

Homostegia  Kelseyi,  440. 
Horizontal  drier,  86. 
Huckleberries,  491. 
Hybrid  reds,  59. 
Hybrids,  178. 

—  blackberry  and  dewberry,  238. 

—  currant  and  gooseberry,  484. 
Hydraecia  cataphracta,  430. 

—  nitella,  279,  430. 
Hymenopsis  nigra,  301. 
Hypercheria  io,  280,  431. 
Hyperplatys  asterus,  431. 

—  maculatus,  431. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  280,  430. 

—  textor,  280,  430. 
Hypocnus  Sambuci,  301. 
Hypocrea  rufa,  298. 
Hypoderma  commune,  299. 

—  virgultorum,  299. 
Hyppa  xylinoides,  279. 
Hysterium  angustatum,  299. 

—  confluens,  299. 

—  eucalypti,  299. 

—  pulicare  var.  angustatum,  299. 

—  Rubi,  299. 

—  viticolum,  299. 
Hysterographium  Mori  viticolum, 

—  Ruborum,  299. 

—  viticolum  Ruborum,  299. 

Imported  currant -borer,  418. 

worm,  422. 

Insects,  bramble,  important,  252. 
less  important,  274. 


526 


INDEX 


Insects,  groselle,  415. 

—  groselle,  less  important,  427. 
Isariopsis  Grayiana,  301. 
lulus  impressus,  275. 

Janus  flaviventris,  426. 

—  integer,  426. 

Japanese  raspberries,  146,  321. 

—  wine-berry,  148,  153,  321. 
Japan  Golden  Mayberry,  146. 
Juneberries,  501. 

Keeping  green  gooseberries,  369. 
Killing  blackberry  plants,  124. 

—  black  raspberry  plants,  99. 

—  dewberry  plants,  144. 
Kiln-drier,  85. 

Lachnella  rufo-olivacea.  302. 
Lagoa  crispata,  277. 
Land  for  bush-fruits,  5. 

—  management  of,  12. 

—  preparation  of,  6. 
Lasioptera  farinosa,  281. 
Late  growth,  19. 
Laxotenia  rosaceana,  277. 
Layering  gooseberries,  360. 
Laying  down  plants,  20. 
Leaf-rusts,  290. 

spot,  currant,  438. 

spots,  288. 

Leafy-cluster  blackberries,  235. 
Lecanium  cynosbati,  428. 

—  Fitchii,  276. 

—  ribis,  428. 
Lecythia  speciosa,  302. 

—  tripustulata,  302. 
Legend,  blackberry,  223. 
Lepargyraea  argentea,  485. 
Leptoglossus  phyllopus,  428. 
Leptosphffiria  Doliolum,  298. 

—  fuscella,  298. 

—  vagabunda,  440. 

Leptostroma  virgultorum  rubinum,  300. 
Leptothyrium  vulgare,  300. 


Libertella  rosaa,  300. 
Lifting  devices,  89. 
Limenitis  Ursula,  431. 
Limonius  auripilis,  281. 
Location,  3. 

—  for  black-caps,  62. 

currants,  339. 

dewberries,  137. 

gooseberries,  358. 

red  raspberries,  44. 

Long  blackberry,  324. 

— cluster  blackberries,  226. 
Loose-cluster  blackberries,  238. 
Lophiostoma  bicuspidatum,  298. 

—  przemorsum,  298. 

—  Scrophulariae,  298. 
Lophiotrema  praemorsum,  298. 
Lophoderus  velutinana,  277. 
Lovett,  Capt.  Josiah,  mentioned,  224. 
Low  blackberry,  328. 

—  blueberry,  496,  498. 

—  bush  blackberry,  330. 
Loxoteenia  musculana,  278. 
Lygus  lineolaris,  253. 

—  pratensis,  253. 

Lyon,  T.  T.,  reported,  21. 

Macrodactylus  angustatus,  266. 

—  subspinosus,  265. 

—  uniformis,  266. 
Macrosporium  punctiforme,  300. 
-  rubi,  300. 

Macrosiphum  rubicolum,  276. 
Mamestra  picta,  279,  430. 
Management   of   land  after  planting, 

12. 

Market,  bush-fruits  for,  2. 
Marketing,  32. 

—  blackberries,  119. 

—  black-caps,  82. 

—  currants,  349. 

—  dewberries,  143. 

—  gooseberries,  367. 

—  red  raspberries,  53. 
Marsonia  ribicola,  441. 
Mayberry,  146,  311. 


INDEX 


527 


Medicinal  quality  of  blackberries,  121. 
Melagopyge  crispata,  277. 
Melampsora  epitea,  442. 
Melanconium  griseum,  300. 
Melanoma  pulvis-pyrius,  440. 
Melanoplus  femur-rubrum,  427. 

—  spretus,  275. 
Melanotus  communis,  281. 
Meliola  manca,  297. 

—  sanguinea,  297. 
Metallus  rubi,  282. 
Metasphaeria  anisometra,  298. 

—  sepincola,  298. 
Microgonia  limbaria,  279,  430. 
Microsphsera  grossulariee,  439. 
Mildew,  gooseberry,  373,  433. 
Miscellaneous  brambles,  146. 

—  bush-fruits,  485. 
Missouri  currant,  482. 
Mistletoe  of  blackberry,  255. 
Monilia  fructigena,  292. 
Monocrepidius  vespertinus,  281. 
Monophadmus  rubi,  273. 
Mountain  blackberry,  219,  327. 
Mulberry,  304. 

Mulching,  13. 

—  blackberries,  116. 
Myelois  convolutella,  418. 
Mytilaspis  pomorum,  276,  429. 
Myxormia  atro-viridis,  300. 
Myzus  ribis,  416. 

Ntemospora  rosse,  300. 
Native  currant  worm,  425. 
Nebraska,  experiments  in,  11,  24. 

—  winter-killing  in,  24. 
Nectarophora  lactucae,  428. 
Nectria  cinnabarina,  436,  440. 

—  ribis,  440, 

Nematocampa  filamentaria,  279,  430. 
Nematus  trimaculatus,  422. 

—  ventricosus,  422. 
Nemoria  chloroleucaria,  278. 
Nepticula  rubifoliella,  278. 

—  villosella,  278. 
Noctua  clandestina,  430. 


Noctua  fennica,  279. 
Northern  dewberry,  242,  244. 
Notodonta  concinna,  278. 

—  unicornis,  278. 
Nysius  angustatus,  275. 

—  destructor,  275. 

—  raphanus,  275. 

Oberea  bimaculata,  268. 

—  perspicillata,  268. 

—  tripunctata,  268. 
Odontota  nervosa,  431. 

—  rosea,  431. 

Odynerus  Catskillensis,  257. 
CEcanthusIniveus,  252. 
CEdemasia  concinna,  278. 
Orbilia  vinosa,  302,  442. 
Orchelimum  glaberrimum,  275. 
Orgyia  antiqua,  429. 
Oriental  raspberries,  146. 
Ornamental  brambles,  150. 

—  currants  and  gooseberries,  413. 
Otiorhynchus  picipes,  282. 

—  singularis,  282. 
Over-production  of  black-caps,  104. 
Oxiptilus  delavaricus,  277. 

—  nigrociliatus,  277. 

—  tenuidactilus,  277. 

Pachybrachys  carbonarius,  282. 
Pacific  coast  dewberry,  330. 
Packages  and  marketing,  32. 
Pale  blueberry,  499. 

—  brown  byturus,  261. 
Paonias  excaacatus,  280. 
Paria,  4-notata,  282. 
Parry,  Charles,  quoted,  254. 
Parsley-leaved  blackberry,  334. 
Pempelia  grossulariae,  418. 
Pemphigus  rubi,  276. 
Penthina  vitivorana,  277. 
Periconia  parasitica,  301. 
Peronospora  ribicola,  442. 

—  rubi,  289. 
Petrophora  prunata,  430. 


528 


INDEX 


Pezicula  rhabarbarina,  302. 
Peziza  lacerata,  302. 

—  scabro-villosa,  302. 

—  subochracea,  302. 

—  vinosa,  442. 
Pezizella  vulgaris,  302. 
Phacidium-  rubi,  302. 
Phoma  herbarum,  299. 

—  hyalina,  441. 

—  lethalis,  299. 
Phorbia  sp.,  260. 
Phoxopteris  comptana,  277. 
Phragmidium  incrassatum  gracile,  30] 

—  gracile,  301. 

—  rubi,  290. 

—  rubi-idiei,  290. 
Phyllactinia  suffulta,  439. 
Phylloecus  flaviventris,  426. 

—  trimaculatus,  282. 
Phylloptera  oblongifolia,  427. 
Phyllosticta  bicolor,  299. 

—  grossularise,  440. 

—  ruborum,  299. 

—  variabilis,  299. 

Physalospora  eriostega  glabrata,  297. 
Pickers,  management  of,  31. 
Picking  blackberries,  119. 

—  stands,  34. 

—  suggestions  on,  29. 
Pinching  young  shoots,  18. 
Planting,  author's  experience  in,  9. 

—  blackberries.  112. 

—  black-caps,  67. 

—  currants,  344. 

—  depth  of,  11. 

—  dewberries,  139. 

—  gooseberries,  363. 

—  red  raspberries,  46. 

—  suggestions  on,  7. 

Plants,  care  of  when  received,  10. 
Plasmopora  ribicola,  442. 
Platysamia  cecropia,  280,  431. 
Pleonectria  Berolinensis,  440. 
Pliny,  quoted,  222. 
Plowrightia  ribesia,  440. 
Poecilocapsus  4-vittatus,  415. 


Poecilocapsus  lineatus,  415. 
Poeciloptera  pruinosa,  428. 
Pollination,  hand-,  29. 

—  effect  of  spraying  on,  27. 

—  of  blackberries,  114. 

—  of  dewberries,  140. 

—  of  red  raspberries,  48. 
Polygonia  comma,  280,  431. 

—  faunus,  431. 

—  progne,  431. 
Polyporus  ribis,  441. 
Preparation  of  the  land,  6. 
Prionus  laticolis,  267. 
Pristiphora  grossulariae,  425. 

—  rufipes,  425. 

Prochserodes  transversata,  430. 
Prodenia  lineatella,  279. 

—  ornithogalli,  279. 

Profits  from  blackberries,  127. 

black-caps,  103. 

currants,  354. 

dewberries,  145. 

gooseberries,  372. 

red  raspberries,  58. 

Profit  in  the  last  bushels,  126. 
Propagation,  25. 

—  of  blackberries,  108. 

black-caps,  65. 

currants,  341. 

dewberries,  138. 

gooseberries,  359. 

red  raspberries,  45. 

Prosopis  affinis,  432. 

—  sp.,283. 
Pruning,  16. 

—  blackberries,  117. 

—  black-caps,  70. 

before  planting,  68. 

—  currants,  347. 

—  dewberries,  141. 

—  gooseberries,  364. 

—  red  raspberries,  49. 

—  hook,  17. 

—  spud,  17. 
Prunus  Besseyi,  510. 
Psenocerus  supernotatus,  422. 


INDEX 


529 


Psylla  rubi,  254. 

—  tripunctata,  254. 
Pteronus  ribesii,  422. 
Puccinia  interstitialis,  285. 

—  Peckiana,  285. 

—  pulchella,  442. 

—  tripustulata,  285. 
Purple-cane  raspberries,  59,  177,  318. 

history  of,  177. 

recommended  varieties,  184. 

varieties  of,  178. 

—  flowering  raspberry,  151,  304. 
Pulvinaria  innumerabilis,  428. 
Pyrenopeziza  lacerata,  302. 

—  rubi,  302. 

Pyrophila  pyramidoides,  279. 
Pyrrharctia  Isabella,  280. 
Pyrrhia  exprimens,  279. 

—  umbra,  279. 

Rake  for  gathering  canes,  18. 
Raspberries,  black,  158. 

—  drying,  77. 

—  forcing,  28. 

—  Japanese,  146. 

—  oriental,  146. 

—  purple-cane,  177. 

—  red,  43. 

—  results  of  crossing,  40. 

—  unclassified,  212. 

Raspberries,  varieties  of— Abel,  204; 
Acme,  173;  Ada,  160;  Addison,  178; 
Ak-sar-ben,  161;  Alden,  161,  171; 
Allen,  182,  213;  Allen  Red  Prolific, 
212;  All  Summer,  199;  Alpine,  200; 
Amazon,  200,  203;  American  Black, 
161;  American  Everbearing,  161; 
American  Improved,  164;  American 
Red,  192;  American  Red  Cane,  182; 
American  White,  161;  Andrews,  192; 
Arctic,  161;  Arnold  Orange,  200; 
Arnold  Red,  200  ;  Arnold  Yellow,  200 ; 
August  Black,  161 ;  Autumn  Black, 
161 ;  Autumn  Black  Raspberry,  170  ; 
Babbit,  161;  Babcock,  178;  Babcock 
Nos.  3,  5  and  9,  162 ;  Bagley  Perpet- 

HH 


ual,  192;  Baker,  200;  Balding's 
Choice,  198;  Baldwin's  Choice,  198; 
Barnet,  200  ;  Barter,  212 ;  Baumforth, 
200  ;  Beckner,  162 ;  Beckwith,  178 ; 
Beebe,  162 ;  Beehive,  212 ;  Belle,  162 ; 
Belle  de  Fontenay,  203  ;  Belle  d'Or- 
leans,  203 ;  Belmont,  162 ;  Biggar 
Seedling,  200 ;  Black,  201 ;  Bluffton, 
162;  Bonanza,  162;  Brackett's  101, 
169;  Brandywine,  192;  Brentford 
Cane,  201;  Brentford  Red,  201; 
Brentford  White,  201;  Brinckle's 
Orange,  207;  Bristol,  193;  Bromley 
Hill,  201:  Bronze  Queen,  162,  212; 
Burley,  209 ;  Burlington,  201 ;  Burns, 
162;  Butler,  163;  Canada,  162; 
Canada  Red,  193;  Cardinal,  179; 
Carleton,  212;  Carman,  162;  Caro- 
line, 179 ;  Carpenter  No.  1,  193 ;  Car- 
penter No.  2,  180;  Carpenter  Seed- 
ling, 163 ;  Carter  Prolific,  201 ;  Cata- 
wissa,  179  ;  Centennial,  163 ;  Cincin- 
nati Red  Antwerp,  212 ;  Citizen,  179 ; 
Champion,  163;  Champlain,  201; 
Chapman,  163;  Charles  the  Bold,  201 ; 
Chester,  212 ;  Chesterfield,  163 ;  Chili 
Monthly,  211;  Christine,  201;  Church- 
man's Superb,  184;  Clarke,  201; 
Cline,  202  ;  Coleman  No.  1,  193 ;  Cole 
Prolific,  193;  Colonel  Wilder,  202; 
Colossal,  179;  Columbian,  179;  Com- 
mon Black,  161 ;  Common  Red,  192 ; 
Conover,  193 ;  Conrath,  163  ;  Cook's 
Seedling,  213;  Cope,  202;  Corinth, 
163;  Cornish,  202;  Cornwall's  Pro- 
lific, 200  ;  Cottier  Everbearing,  163 ; 
Cox  Honey,  202;  Craig,  213;  Craw- 
ford, 163;  Cream,  163;  Cretan  Red, 
202 ;  Crimson  Beauty,  193  ;  Crimson 
Cluster,  213;  Crimson  Queen,  213; 
Cromwell,  163;  Crystal  White,  202; 
Cumberland,  163;  Cushing,  202;  Cuth- 
bert,  44,  193,  199 ;  Cutbush's  Prince 
of  Wales,  208;  Daily  Bearing,  163; 
Davis,  164  ;  Davison,  164  ;  Delaware, 
202:  Diadem,  202;  Dictator,  179; 


530 


INDEX 


Raspberries,  varieties  of  — 
Doolittle,  159,  164;  Doolittle's  Bed- 
flavored  Black-cap,  .  180  ;  Doomore, 
164  ;  Dorchester,  164 ;  Double-bearing 
Red,  203 ;  Double-bearing  Yellow,  211; 
Downing,  203;  Duhring,  203;  Dun- 
can, 164,  180 ;  Dyack  Seedling,  203 ; 
Earhart,  164;  Early  Cluster.  165; 
Early  Prolific,  165,  180,  203;  Early 
Richmond,  213;  Early  White,  213; 
Eastern  King,  193;  Ebon  Beauty,  165 ; 
Ebony,  165;  Elizabeth,  213;  Ellis- 
dale,  180  ;  Elm  City,  213  ;  Elsie,  165; 
Emily,  203;  Emperor,  165 ;  Empire, 
203;  English  Black,  201;  English 
Brown,  182 ;  English  Cane,  203 ;  Eng- 
lish Giant,  203 ;  English  Globe,  203  ; 
English  Purple,  182,  213;  English 
Red,  182,  192 ;  English  Red  Cane,  213; 
English  White,  203;  Erie,  180; 
Erwood  Everbearing,  213 ;  Eureka 
165, 180 ;  Everbearing  Red,  203 ;  Ever- 
lasting, 165 ;  Every  Day,  165  ;  Excel- 
sior, 213 ;  Extra  Late,  167 ;  Fadely, 
165 ;  False  Red  Antwerp,  213  ;  False 
Red  Cane,  213;  Farnsworth,  165; 
Fastolf,  203;  Fay,  165;  Ferndale, 
165 ;  Filby,  203 ;  Flesh-colored,  203  ; 
Florence,  165 ;  Fontenay,  203  ;  Four- 
Seasons  Red,  204 ;  Four-Seasons  Yel- 
low, 204;  Frambosier  &  Gros  Fruit, 
209 ;  Frambosier  Couleur  de  Chair, 
203 ;  Franconia,  204 ;  French,  204, 
214;  French  Everbearing,  204;  Ful- 
ton, 204  ;  Ganargua,  180;  Garden,  180; 
Garden  Raspberry,  182;  Gardiner, 
180  ;  Garnet,  180 ;  Gault,  166 ;  Gen- 
eral Negley,  166;  General  Patterson, 
204 ;  Genesee,  204 ;  Gillard  Seedling, 
205 ;  Gladstone,  180 ;  Golden  Alaska, 
215;  Golden  Cap,  161,  166;  Golden 
Prague,  205;  Golden  Prolific,  Beebe's, 
162;  Golden  Thornless,  166;  Grant, 
215;  Grape,  205;  Grape  Vine,  215; 
Gray,  166;  Green,  166;  Gregg,  166, 
176;  Griesa,  179;  Hale  Early,  167; 


Hamilton,  167 ;  Hannibal,  167 ;  Han- 
sell,  44,  194;  Harkness,  168;  Har- 
ris, 194;  Harrison,  167;  Haskell 
Yellow,  167;  Hayne  Seedling,  167; 
Hawkeye,  167 ;  Hawkins  Orange, 
215;  Heebner,  205;  Henrietta,  205; 
Herstine,  215;  Hilborn,  167;  Hil- 
dreth,  181 ;  Highland  Antwerp,  194  ; 
Highland  Hardy,  194;  Hiram,  216; 
Hixon,167;  Hoag,168;  Hopkins,  168; 
Hornet,  205;  Howell,  216;  Howland's 
Red  Antwerp,  209;  Hudson  River 
Antwerp,  205;  Hudson  River  Red, 
194;  Huntsman  Giant,  205;  Hunts- 
ville,  182;  Hybrid  Crimson  Mam- 
moth, 181;  Idaho,  168;  Ideal,  168; 
Imperial,  205;  Imperial  Red,  194; 
Imperial  White,  205;  Indiana,  168; 
Ironclad,  168;  I.  X.  L.,  194  ;  Johnson, 
216;  Johnston's  Sweet,  169;  Joslyn, 
164;  Jouet,  206;  Kagy  Everbearing, 
168 :  Kansas,  168,  176 ;  Kellogg,  169 ; 
Kentucky,  164;  Kenyon,  194;  Kerr 
White,  169;  Key  Prolific,  169;  Key- 
stone, 216  ;  Kimball,  169  ;  King,  206 ; 
Kirtland,  213;  Knevett  Giant,  206; 
Knevett's  Red  Antwerp,  209  ;  Kreigh, 
216;  Lady  Ann,  206;  Large-fruited 
Monthly,  206;  Large  Orange,  209: 
Large  Red,  200;  Large  White,  216; 
Lindley,  216 ;  Lindsey,  169 ;  Linton, 
216;  Little,  169;  Little  Prolific,  216; 
Longworth,  206;  Lord  Beaconsfield, 
206;  Lord  Exmouth,  200;  Lost  Rubies, 
206  ;  Lotta,  169, 176 ;  London,  194, 199; 
Lovett,  169  ;  Lum  Everbearing,  170 ; 
Lum  Yellow  Canada,  170;  Macom- 
ber,  170;  Magnum  Bonum,  206; 
Mammoth  Cluster,  170 ;  Manwaring 
No.  1,  170  ;  Marlboro,  195,  199;  Mary, 
195;  Mason's  Seedling  Grape,  205; 
May  King,  170;  May  Orange,  2165 
McCormick,  170;  McCracken,  170; 
Merkel,  181 ;  Mendocino,  216 ;  Mere- 
dith Queen,  195  ;  Merveille  de  Quatre 
Saisons,  204 ;  Miami,  170 ;  Michigan, 


INDEX 


531 


Raspberries,  varieties  of — 
195;  Miller,  196,  199;  Miller  Daily, 
170  ;  Miller  Favorite,  196,  216  ;  Mills, 
170  :  Mills'  No.  1,  170  ;  Mills'  No.  7, 
172;  Minnesota,  170;  Mohler,  170; 
Mohler,  No.  1,  216;  Montclair,  181; 
Monthly  Black-cap,  172 ;  Moody,  171 ; 
Moore  Seedling,  171;  Mote  Ever- 
bearing, 181;  Mrs.  Ingersoll,  206; 
Mrs.  Wilder,  206;  Mrs.  Wood,  181; 
Munger,  171;  Muriel,  206;  Muskin- 
gum,  181;  My  Seedling,  217;  Mys- 
tery, 171 ;  Naomi,  204,  207 ;  Narra- 
gansett,  207 ;  Nebraska,  217 ;  Nemaha, 
171 ;  Newark,  217  ;  New  Everbearing, 
207 ;  New  Haven,  171 ;  New  Prolific, 
217;  New  Red  Antwerp,  205;  New 
Rochelle,  181 ;  Niagara,  196 ;  Norfolk, 
171;  Northern  Wonder,  217  ;  North- 
field,  171 ;  North  River  Antwerp,  205; 
Northumberland  Fillbasket,  207 ; 
Norwalk,  207;  Norwood,  182;  Notting_ 
ham  Scarlet,  207  ;  October  Red,  204  '• 
October  Yellow,  204 ;  Ohio,  171,  176 ; 
Ohio  Everbearing,  159,  172;  Olathe, 
196  ;  Old  English  Yellow,  203  ;  Older, 
172,  176;  Onondaga,  172;  Ontario, 
172 ;  Orange,  207  ;  Orange  King,  200 ; 
Oregon,  172;  Osceola,  196;  Ozark, 
172 ;  Palluau,  208 ;  Palmer,  173,  176  ; 
Papier,  208;  Parnell,  208;  Parry's 
Nos.  1  and  2,  196;  Patrician,  208; 
Pearl,  196;  Pennsylvanian,  196; 
Percy,  182;  Perfection,  196;  Philadel- 
phia, 182  ;  Phoenix,  217 ;  Pilate,  208 ; 
Pioneer,  173  ;  Pomona,  197 ;  Poschar- 
sky,  Nos.  3,  9, 15,  173 ;  Pride  of  Kent, 
208 ;  Pride  of  the  Hudson,  208;  Pride 
of  the  Market,  173;  Pride  of  the 
West,  173;  Prince  Globose,  209; 
Prince  of  Wales,  208 ;  Princess  Alice, 
209  ;  Progress,  173  ;  Prolific  Red,  209 ; 
Prosser,  201 ;  Pullman,  217 ;  Purple 
Cane,  182;  Purple  Dulcet,  182 ;  Purple 
Prolific,  182;  Queen  Marguerite,  217; 
Queen  of  the  Market,  193 ;  Queen  of 


the  West,  173;  Quinby's  Favorite, 
193 ;  Rancocas,  197 ;  Ransom  Ever- 
bearing, 173  ;  Red  Antwerp,  209 ;  Red 
Cane,  182,  209;  Red  Cluster,  217; 
Re(e)der,  197;  Redfield,  182;  Red 
Imperial,  194 ;  Red  Pearl,  196 ;  Red 
Prolific,  182;  Red  Sweet,  209;  Red 
Queen,  197 ;  Reliance,  183  ;  Rex,  173  ; 
Reyes,  173 ;  Richardson,  217 ;  Rider, 
217 ;  Riley's  Early,  217 ;  Rivers'  Or- 
ange, 209  ;  Rivers'  New  Monthly,  206; 
Rivers'  Yellow,  209  ;  Rocky  Mountain 
Cluster,  173  ;  Rogers'  Victoria,  211 ; 
Royal  Church,  197 ;  Russell  Red,  209 ; 
Ruby,  217;  Rundell,  173;  Salzer's 
Everbearing  Red,  183 ;  Sarah,  183 ; 
Saunders,  217;  Sauuders'  Hybrid, 
183  ;  Saunders'  No.  60,  173  ;  Savanna, 
173  ;  Scarlet,  197 ;  Scarlet  Gem,  197 ; 
Semper  Fidelis,  209;  Seneca,  174; 
Shaffer,  183 ;  Shaffer  Seedling,  No. 
5,  183;  Sharpe,  209;  Short-jointed 
Cane,  218;  Silver  Queen,  210;  Sinton 
Thornless,  174  ;  Sir  John,  210:  Skow- 
hegan,  174;  Smith  •  Giant,  174; 
Smith's  Ironclad,  168;  Smith  No. 
2,  174;  Smith  Prolific,  174;  Smith 
Purple,  183 ;  Souchetti,  210 ;  Souhe- 
gan,  174,  176;  Southern  Red,  198; 
Southern  Thornless,  198;  Spanish 
Black,  174 ;  Spray  Early,  174 ;  Spring- 
field, 174;  Spring  Grove,  210;  Stay- 
man's  No.  1, 183;  Stayman's  No.  2, 
197 ;  Stayman's  No.  5, 196 ;  St.  Louis, 
218;  Stoever,  197;  Success,  174;  Sucre 
de  Metz,  210 ;  Summit,  174 ;  Superb, 
184,  210;  Superb  d'Angleterre,  210; 
Superlative,  210  ;  Surpasse  Merveille, 
210 ;  Surprise,  175,  184,  210 ;  Surprise 
d'Autumn,  210;  Surrey,  175;  Sus- 
queco,  192;  Sweet  Home,  175;  Sweet 
Yellow  Antwerp,  210;  Talbot,  211; 
Talcott,  198;  Tall  Red  Cane,  218; 
Taylor  Paragon,  211 ;  Thimbleberry, 
161 ;  Thomas,  175 ;  Thompson's  Early 
Pride,  198;  Thompson's  Early  Pro- 


532 


INDEX 


Raspberries,  varieties  of  — 
lifie,  198;  Thompson's  King,  206; 
Thompson's  Sweet,  175 ;  Thunderer, 
211;  Thwack,  198;  Townsend  No. 
2, 175 ;  Trusty,  198  ;  Turkish  Turban, 
211 ;  Turner,  198 ;  Twice-bearing,  203  ; 
Tyler,  175,  176 ;  Vermont,  211 ;  Vice- 
President  Cope,  202  ;  Vice-President 
French,  204;  Victor,  218;  Victoria, 
211;  Virginia,  175;  Virginia  Bed, 
198 ;  Wade,  175 ;  Walker,  211 ;  Water- 
loo, 218  ;  Waters'  Success,  174 ;  Wat- 
son's Seedling,  218 ;  Wauregan,  218  ; 
Welsh,  198 ;  Westchester,  176  ;  Weth- 
erbee,  184;  White  Antwerp,  211; 
White  Canada,  218;  White  Four- 
seasons,  204;  White-fruited,  198; 
White  Mountain,  118 ;  White  Thim- 
bleberry,  161;  White  Transparent, 
210;  Williams'  Preserving,  211 ;  Wil- 
mington, 192;  Wilmot  Early  Red, 
211;  Winant,  198;  Winona,  176; 
Wonder,  176;  Woodland,  Miller's, 
196 ;  Woodside,  176  ;  Woodward,  211  ; 
Woodward  Red  Globe,  211 ;  Wragg, 
176 ;  Yellow  Antwerp,  211 ;  Yellow 
Canada,  200  ;  Yellow-cap,  161;  Yellow 
Chili,  211 ;  Yellow  Pearl,  176 ;  Yosem- 
ite,  176. 

Raspberry-cane  borer,  268. 

maggot,  260. 

—  Chinese,  150. 

—  Fire.  155. 

—  geometer,  260. 

—  saw- fly,  273. 

Recommended  varieties,  blackberries, 

240. 

currants,  391. 

dewberries,  250 . 

gooseberries,  412. 

raspberries,  American  red,  199. 

—  black,  176. 

European  red,  212. 

purple-cane,  184. 

Red  and  white  currants,  379. 

—  flowered  currant,  413,  476. 


Red-necked  cane-borer,  262. 

—  raspberries,  43. 
American,  184. 

recommended  varieties,  19tf 

varieties  of,  192. 

autumn-fruiting,  52. 

duration  of  plantations,  55. 

European,  199. 

recommended  varieties,  212. 

varieties  of,  199. 

evaporating,  55. 

fertilizers  for,  45. 

hardiness  of,  57. 

harvesting  and  marketing,  53. 

location  for,  44. 

planting,  46. 

pollination  of,  48. 

profits  of,  58. 

propagation  of,  45. 

pruning,  49. 

soil  for,  43. 

tillage  for,  49. 

uses  of,  54. 

yields  of,  58. 

—  raspberry,  future  of,  186. 
history  of,  186. 

—  rust,  285. 

Reid,   E.   W.,    berry   crate    described 

32. 
Rhodites  rosze,  283. 

—  radicum,  283. 
Rhabdospora  ribicola,  441. 

—  rubi,  300. 
Rhytisma  Blakei,  302. 
Ribes,  444. 

—  geographical  variation  in,  444. 

—  acerifolium,  472,  483. 

—  alpinum,  470. 

—  amarum,  450. 

—  ambiguum,  465. 

—  Americanum,  376,  390,  414,  48L 

—  amictum,  414,  452. 

—  aureum,  376,  390,  413,  482. 
var.  tenuiflorum,  483. 

—  Beatonii,  483. 

—  braehyanthum,  460. 


INDEX 


533 


Ribes  bracteosum,  473. 

—  Californicum,  414,  450. 

—  cereum,  474. 

—  ciliosum,  468. 

—  eognatum,  459. 

—  curvata,  456. 

—  cynosbati,  398,  464. 

—  dikuscha,  483. 

—  divaricatum,  457. 

—  erythrocarpum,  468. 

—  flavum,  484. 

—  floridum,  481. 

—  fragrans,  413. 

—  glutinosum,  478. 

—  Gordonianum,  414,  478. 

—  gracile,  398,  444,  455. 

—  grossularia,  394,  403,  463. 

—  hesperium,  453. 

—  hirtellum,  463. 

—  Howellii,  472. 

—  Hudsonianum,  472. 

—  intermedium,  481. 

—  irriguum,  460. 

—  lacustre,  466. 

—  lasianthum,  460. 

—  laxiflorum,  472. 

—  leiobotrys,  484. 

—  leptanthum,  459. 

var  branchyanthum,  460. 

—  leucoderme,  460. 

—  Lobbii,  414,  453. 

—  Loudoni,  484. 

—  malvaceum,  479. 

—  Marshallii,  455. 

—  Menziesii,  447. 

—  migratomm,  484. 

—  Missouriense,  484. 

—  Mogollonicum,  481. 

—  montanum,  466. 

—  montigenum,  467. 

—  multiflorum,  467. 

—  Nevadense,  477. 

—  nigrum,  375,  388,  473. 

—  niveum,  456. 

—  nubigenum,  467. 

—  odoratum,  484. 


Ribes    oxyacanthoides,    394,    399,    414, 

461. 
var.  saxosum,  457. 

—  Palmeri,  481. 

—  pinetorum,  466. 

—  prostratum,  467. 

—  quercetorum,  459. 

—  resinosum,  484. 

—  Roezli,  450. 

—  rotundifolium,  398, 457. 

—  rubrum,  375,  379,  469. 

—  Rusbyi,  484. 

—  sanguineum,  413,  476. 

—  saxatile,  470,  484. 

—  setosum,  461. 

—  speeiosum,  413,  446. 

—  subvestitum,  447. 

—  tortuosum,  479. 

—  uva  crispa,  463. 

—  velutinum,  460. 

—  viburnifolium,  471. 

—  victoris,  453. 

—  viscossissimum,  475. 

—  Watsonianum,  465. 

—  Wilsonianum,  452. 

—  Wolfli,  477. 

Rocky    Mountain    thimbleberry,    151, 

305. 

Root-cuttings,  blackberry,  110. 
gooseberry,  362. 

—  gall,  294. 
Rose  chafer,  265. 

leaved  raspberry,  322. 

Rubi  podogra,  263. 
Rubus,  303. 

—  Allegheniensis,  326. 

—  Americanus,  314. 

—  arcticus,  153,  312. 

—  argutus,  219,  235,  326. 

var.  floridus,  326. 

Randii,  327. 

—  Armeniacus,  336. 

—  Baileyanus,  330. 

—  bellidiflorus,  335. 

—  Californicus,  305. 

—  Canadensis,  L.,220,  327, 


534 


INDEX 


Rubus  Canadensis,    author?,  241, "242, 

328. 
var.  invisus,  329. 

—  chamaemorus,  308. 

—  cratsegifolius,  150,  152,  310. 

—  cuneifolius,  220,  240,  327. 

—  deliciosus,  152,  307. 

—  decumbens,  336. 

—  Enslenii,  330. 

—  floridus,  326. 

—  frondosus,  326. 

—  fruticosus,  221. 
flore  pleno,  335. 

—  Henryi,  155. 

—  hesperius,  319. 

—  heterophyllus,  336. 

—  hispidus,  242,  334. 

—  Hoffmeisteriana,  150. 

—  Idams,  185, 186,  190,  199,  314. 

—  invisus,  244,  329. 

—  Japonicus,  336, 

—  Kcefmeisterianus,  336. 

—  lachriatus,  154,  334. 

—  lasiococcus,  308. 

—  leucodermis,  159,  319. 

—  longipetalus,  336. 

—  macropetalus,  330. 

—  microphyllus,  146,  311. 

—  Millspaughii,  220,  327. 

—  montanus,  326. 

—  nanus,  336. 

—  neglectus,  59,  177,  318. 

—  Neo-Mexicanus,  307. 

—  nigrobaccus,  219,  226,  324. 

var.  albinus,  237,  324. 

sativus,  232,  324. 

x  strigosus,  326. 

—  x  villosus,  238,  324. 

—  nivalis,  310. 

—  Nutkanus,  151,  305. 

—  occidentalis,  158,  219,  321. 

—  odoratus,  151,  304. 

—  palmatus,  311. 

~-  parviflorus,  151,  305. 

—  pedatus,  313. 

—  phcenicolasius,  148,  153,  321. 


Rubus  rosaafolius,  147,  322. 

—  saxatilis,  314. 

—  setosus,  334. 

—  spectabilis,  153,  322,  335. 

—  sorbifolius,  147,  322. 

—  stellatus,  310. 

—  strigosus,  184,  185,  317. 

x  occidentalis  leucodermis,  318. 

—  tetraphyllus,  336. 

—  trifidus,  155,  336. 

—  trivialis,  243,  246,  330. 

—  ulmifolius  var.  bellidiflorus,  335. 

—  ursinus,  330. 

—  villosus,  Ait.  241,  242,  244,  328. 
authors,  324. 

—  —  var.  frondosus,  326. 

humifusus,  330. 

Michiganensis,  329. 

—  —  —  montanus,  326. 
roribaccus,  329. 

—  vitifolius,  241,  243,  330. 
Running  swamp  blackberry,  334. 
Rynchites  bicolor,  282. 

Salmon-berry,  151,  153,  322. 
Samia  cecropia,  280,  431. 
Sand  blackberry,  240,  327. 

—  cherry,  510. 

San  Jose  scale,  417. 
Saperda  tripunctata,  268. 
Saunders,  Professor,  quoted,  273. 
Scarifier,  home-made,  16. 
Schizura  ipomeaa,  278. 

—  unicornis,  278. 
Scopelosoma  sidus,  279. 

—  vinulenta,  279. 
Scott,  W.  J.,  quoted,  495. 
Scuffle-hoe,  15. 

Seeds,  propagation  by,  25. 
Selandria  paupera,  282. 

—  rubi,  273. 
Selling,  35. 
Septoria  aurea,  441. 
destruans,  441. 

—  ribicola,  441. 

—  ribis,  438. 


INDEX 


535 


Septoria  rubi,  288. 
Septosporium  praelongum,  301. 
Sericaria  mori,  280. 
Sesia  tipuliformis,  418. 

—  hemizoniae,  278. 
Setting,  methods  of,  11. 
Shakespeare,  quoted,  222. 
Shepherdia  argentea,  485. 
Short-cluster  blackberries,  232. 
Sipha  rubifollii,  276. 
Siphonophora  lactucse,  428. 

—  rubi,  276. 

Slingerland,  M.  V.,  quoted,  256. 

Slope,  3. 

Smerinthus  excsecatus,  280. 

Smith,  John  B.,  quoted,  258,  264,  267. 

Snowy  tree-cricket,  252. 

Soil  for  blackberries,  106. 

black-caps,  61. 

bush-fruits,  5. 

currants,  339. 

dewberries,  135. 

gooseberries,  358. 

red  raspberries,  43. 

Solanopsis  fugax,  283. 
Southern  dewberry,  243,  246,  330. 
Sphserella  grossulariae,  439. 
Sphseria  anisometra,  298. 

—  caespitulans,  298. 

—  concrescens,'440. 

—  Hendersonia,  298. 

—  melanostyla,  297. 

—  malantera,  298. 

—  obtusa,  298. 

—  penicillata,  440. 

—  recondita,  440. 

—  ribesia,  440. 

—  rubincola,  298. 

—  ruborum,  298,  299. 

—  rufa,  298. 

—  sepincola,  298. 
Sphaeropsis  hyalina,  441. 

—  ribicola,  441. 

—  rubicola,  299. 
Sphaerotheca  Castagnei,  290,  439. 

—  humuli,  290. 


Sphaerotheca  mors-uvae,  433. 

—  pannosa,  297. 
Spilosoma  Virginica,  430. 
Sporocyba  parasiticum,  301. 
Spraying,  effect  on  pollination,  27. 
Spring  planting,  7. 

—  pruning,  18. 
Stacks,  evaporator,  87. 
Steam  tray-driers,  94. 
Stemphylium  macrosporoideum,  441. 
Stictis  rubi,  302. 

Stigmus  fraternus,  283. 
Stilbum  pruinosipes,  301.   [berries,  114. 
Strawberries,  planting    among   blacfc- 
Strawberry-raspberry,  147,  322. 

—  weevil,  270. 
Subsoiling,  6. 
Suckers,  9. 

—  increased  by  cultivation,  109. 
Summer  planting,  8. 

—  pruning,  18. 

Swamp  blueberry,  495,  499. 
Synchlora  albolineata,  260. 

—  glaucaria,  260. 

—  rubivoraria,  260. 
Systena  frontalis,  431. 

Tangleberry,  497. 
Tarnished  plant-bug,  253. 
Tasteless  mountain  currant,  470. 
Tetracis  trianguliferata,  430. 
Tetranychus  telarius,  275,  427. 
Thamnonoma  flavicaria,  430. 

—  quadrilinearia,  430. 

Thayer,  M.  A.,  blackberry  profits,  129. 
Thelephora  ribesina,  442. 
Thimbleberry,  151,  304,  319. 

—  Rocky  Mountain,  151. 
Thinning  currants,  349. 

—  gooseberries,  366. 

—  the  fruit,  27. 
Thornless  blackberry,  327. 
Thrips  tritici,  275. 
Thyatira  scripta,  279. 
Thyreocoris  pulicarius,  276. 
Tillage,  12. 


536 


INDEX 


Tillage  for  blackberries,  115. 

black-caps,  69. 

currants,  346. 

dewberries,  141. 

gooseberries,  364. 

red  raspberries,  49. 

—  tools,  14. 

Time  required  for  evaporating, 
Tips,  tools  for  putting  down,  65. 
Tischeria  ^Enea,  278. 

—  malifoliella,  278. 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  256. 
Tools  for  putting  down  tips,  65. 

—  pruning,  17. 

—  tillage,  14. 
Topping  evaporator,  85. 
Tower  drier,  86. 
Training  currants,  348,  349. 

—  dewberries,  141. 

—  gooseberries,  366. 
Tray  for  evaporators,  98. 
Tree  cranberry,  506. 
Trichopeziza  subochracea,  302. 
Trochilium  caudatum,  429. 

—  tipuliforme,  418. 
Trypeta  Canadensis,421. 
Tubercularia  carpogena,  301. 

—  confluens,  441. 

—  decolorans,  301. 

—  persicina,  301. 

—  vulgaris,  436. 
Tymnes  tricolor,  282. 
Tympanis  conspersa,  302. 
Types  of  blackberries,  225. 
Typhlocyba  obliqua,  428. 

—  tricincta,  276,  428. 
Typhula  rubicola,  301. 
Tyroglyphus  ribis,  427. 

Unclassified  raspberries,  212. 
Uredo  (Cseoma)  confluens,  442. 

—  interstitialis,  285. 

—  Jonesii,  442. 
-  lucida,  285. 

—  ribicola,  442. 

—  speciosa,  302. 


Uroplata  pallida,  431. 
Uses  of  blackberries,  120. 

currants,  351. 

gooseberries,  368. 

red  raspberries,  54. 

Vaccinium,  497. 

—  Canadense,  499. 

—  corymbosum,  495,  499. 

—  Pennsylvanicum,  496,  498. 

—  vacillans,  499. 
Valsa  agnostica,  439. 

—  ceratophora,  297. 

—  ribesia,  439. 

—  rubi,  297. 

—  rubicola,  439. 

—  rubin"ola,  298. 

—  sepincola,  297. 

—  subclypeata,  297. 

—  syngenesia,  297. 
Vanessa  comma,  280,  431. 

—  progne,  431. 

Variation  in  currants,  375,  378. 
Varieties  of  blackberries  and  dewber- 
unclassified,  227.  [ries  219. 

—  —  currants,  375. 

-  —  gooseberries,  394,  402,  403. 

raspberries,  157. 

American  red,  192. 

black,  160. 

European  red,  199. 

purple-cane,  178. 

unclassified,  212. 

Variety  of  black-cap  for  evaporating,  98. 
Velutaria  rufo-olivacea,  302. 

—  Kunzei,  297. 
Vermicularia  compacta,  299. 

—  effusa,  299. 
Viburnum  opulus,  506. 

Waterton,  quoted,  223. 
Western  dewberries,  243,  247. 
White  blackberry,  237,  324. 
Wild  black  currant,  481. 
Williams  evaporator,  93. 
Wind-breaks,  4. 


INDEX 


537 


Wineberry,  148, 153,  321. 
Wine,  blackberry,  122. 
Winter-killing,  19,  24. 
Winter  protection,  20. 

Xylophasia  arctica,  430. 

Yellows,  285. 

Yield  of  blackberries,  125. 


Yield  of  black-caps,  101. 

in  dried  fruit,  102, 

currants,  353. 

dewberries,  145. 

gooseberries,  371. 

red  raspberiies,  58. 

Zerene  catenaria,  278. 
Zophodia  grossulariae,  418. 


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